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THE MAJOR OPERATIONS OF THE NAVIES IN THE WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE

BY

A.T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D.

CAPTAIN, U.S. NAVY

AUTHOR OF 'THE INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON HISTORY, 1660-1783,'
'THE INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE,
1783-1812,' 'THE RELATIONS OF SEA POWER TO THE WAR OF 1812,' 'NAVAL
STRATEGY' ETC.

_WITH PORTRAITS, MAPS, AND BATTLE PLANS_

LONDON
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON & COMPANY, LIMITED
OVERY HOUSE, 100 SOUTHWARK STREET, S.E.

[Illustration: (frontispiece)]

_Copyright, 1913_, By A.T. MAHAN

_All rights reserved_

Published, October, 1913

THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, MASS., U.S.A.

PREFACE

The contents of this volume were first contributed as a chapter, under
the title of "Major Operations, 1762-1783," to the "History of the
Royal Navy," in seven volumes, published by Messrs. Sampson Low,
Marston, and Company, under the general editorship of the late Sir
William Laird Clowes. For permission to republish now in this separate
form, the author has to express his thanks to the publishers of that
work.

In the Introduction following this Preface, the author has summarized
the general lesson to be derived from the course of this War of
American Independence, as distinct from the particular discussion
and narration of the several events which constitute the body of the
treatment. These lessons he conceives to carry admonition for the
present and future based upon the surest foundations; namely, upon
the experience of the past as applicable to present conditions. The
essential similarity between the two is evident in a common dependence
upon naval strength.

There has been a careful rereading and revision of the whole text; but
the changes found necessary to be made are much fewer than might have
been anticipated after the lapse of fifteen years. Numerous footnotes
in the History, specifying the names of ships in fleets, and of their
commanders in various battles, have been omitted, as not necessary to
the present purpose, though eminently proper and indeed indispensable
to an extensive work of general reference and of encyclopaedic scope,
such as the History is. Certain notes retained with the initials
W.L.C. are due to the editor of that work.

A.T. MAHAN.

DECEMBER, 1912.

CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFACE v

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix

LIST OF MAPS xxi

LIST OF BATTLE-PLANS xxiii

INTRODUCTION

THE TENDENCY OF WARS TO SPREAD

Macaulay quoted on the action of Frederick the Great 1

Illustration from Conditions of the Turkish Empire 2

Lesson from the Recent War in the Balkans, 1912-1913 2

The War of American Independence a striking example of the
Tendency of Wars to Spread 3

Origin and Train of Events in that War, Traced 3

Inference as to possible Train of Future Events in the History of
the United States 4

The Monroe Doctrine Simply a Formulated Precaution against the
Tendency of Wars to Spread 4

National Policy as to Asiatic Immigration 4

Necessity of an Adequate Navy if these two National Policies are
to be sustained 4

Dependence on Navy Illustrated in the Two Great National Crises;
in the War of Independence and in the War of Secession
4

The United States not great in Population in proportion to
Territory 5

Nor Wealthy in Proportion to exposed Coast-Line 5

Special Fitness of a Navy to meet these particular conditions 5

The Pacific a great World Problem, dependent mainly on Naval Power
5

CHAPTER I

THE NAVAL CAMPAIGN ON LAKE CHAMPLAIN

1775-1776

Preponderant effect of Control of the Water upon the Struggle for
American Independence 6

Deducible then from Reason and from Experience 6

Consequent Necessity to the Americans of a Counterpoise to British
Navy 6

This obtained through Burgoyne's Surrender 6

The Surrender of Burgoyne traceable directly to the Naval
Campaigns on Lake Champlain, 1775, 1776 7

The subsequent Course of the War in all Quarters of the world due
to that decisive Campaign 7

The Strategic Problem of Lake Champlain familiar to Americans from
the Wars between France and Great Britain prior to 1775
8

Consequent prompt Initiative by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold
8

Energetic Pursuit of first Successes by Arnold 9

Complete Control of Lake Champlain thus secured 9

Invasion of Canada by Montgomery, 1775 9

Arnold marches through Maine Wilderness and joins Montgomery
before Quebec 10

Assault on Quebec. Failure, and Death of Montgomery 10

Arnold maintains Blockade of Quebec, 1776 10

Relief of the Place by British Navy 11

Arnold Retreats to Crown Point 12

Arnold's Schemes and Diligence to create a Lake Navy, 1776 13

Difficulties to be overcome 13

Superior Advantages of the British 13

The British by building acquire Superiority, but too late for
effect in 1776 13

Ultimate Consequences from this Retardation 14

Constitution of the Naval Force raised by Arnold 14

He moves with it to the foot of Lake Champlain 15

Takes position for Defence at Valcour Island 15

Particular Difficulties encountered by British 15

Constitution of the British Lake Navy 16

Land Forces of the Opponents 17

Naval Forces of the Two at the Battle of Valcour Island 17

Magnitude of the Stake at Issue 18

Arnold's Purposes and Plans 18

Advance of the British 19

Arnold's Disposition of his Flotilla to receive Attack 20

The Battle of Valcour Island 21

The Americans Worsted 22

Arnold Retreats by night Undetected 23

Pursuit by the British 24

Destruction of the American Vessels 25

British Appreciation of the Importance of the Action, as shown
26

Criticism of the conduct of the Opposing Leaders 26

Arnold's Merit and Gallantry 27

End of the Naval Story of the Lakes 27

Effect of the Campaign upon the Decisive Events of 1777 28

CHAPTER II

NAVAL ACTION AT BOSTON, CHARLESTON, NEW YORK, AND NARRAGANSETT
BAY--ASSOCIATED LAND OPERATIONS, TO THE BATTLE OF TRENTON

1776

Necessity that Force, if resorted to, be from the first Adequate
29

Application to National Policy in peace 29

To the Monroe Doctrine 29

Failure of the British Government of 1775 in this respect 30

Consequences of such failure 30

General Howe evacuates Boston and retires to Halifax. Extent of
his Command 30

Dissemination of Effort by British Government 30

Expedition against South Carolina 31

Local Conditions about Charleston 32

Description of Fort Moultrie 33

Plan of British Naval Attack 33

The Battle of Fort Moultrie 34

Failure of the Attack. British Losses 36

Comment upon the Action 37

The Expedition retires to New York 38

The Howes, Admiral and General, arrive in New York Bay 39

Operations about the City 39

Continuous and Decisive, but Inconspicuous, Part played by the
British Navy 40

Description of Local Conditions about New York 40

American Preparations for Defence 41

Crucial Weakness of the Scheme 42

The Advance of the British 42

Washington withdraws his Army from the Brooklyn side 43

Success of this Withdrawal due to British Negligence 44

Subsequent Operations, and Retreat of Washington to New Jersey
45

Retreat continued to Pennsylvania, where he receives
reinforcements 46

Slackness of Sir William Howe's actions 47

The British take possession of Narragansett Bay. Importance of
that position 48

Washington suddenly takes the Offensive. Battle of Trenton 48

He recovers most of the State of New Jersey 49

CHAPTER III

THE DECISIVE PERIOD OF THE WAR. SURRENDER OF BURGOYNE AND CAPTURE OF
PHILADELPHIA BY HOWE. THE NAVAL PART IN EACH OPERATION

1777

British Object in Campaign of 1777 the same as that in 1776 50

Part assigned to Burgoyne 50

Slowness of his Progress at the beginning 51

Sir William Howe, instead of cooeperating, takes his Army to the
Chesapeake 52

Criticism of this Course 52

Howe's Progress to Philadelphia, and Capture of that City 53

Admiral Lord Howe takes the Fleet from the Chesapeake to the
Delaware 53

Surrender of Burgoyne and his Army 53

British Naval Operations in Delaware Bay 54

Brief Tenure--Nine Months--of Philadelphia by British 55

The general Failure of the British Campaign determined by Howe's
move to the Chesapeake 55

General Results of the Campaign 56

Part played by the British Navy. Analogous to that in Spain,
1808-1812, and in many other instances 57

CHAPTER IV

WAR BEGINS BETWEEN FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN. BRITISH EVACUATE
PHILADELPHIA. NAVAL OPERATIONS OF D'ESTAING AND HOWE ABOUT NEW YORK,
NARRAGANSETT BAY, AND BOSTON. COMPLETE SUCCESS OF LORD HOWE. AMERICAN
DISAPPOINTMENT IN D'ESTAING. LORD HOWE RETURNS TO ENGLAND

1778

France recognizes the Independence of the United States, and makes
with them a defensive Alliance 58

A French Fleet sails for America under Comte d'Estaing 59

Unprepared condition of the British Navy 59

Admiral Byron sails with a Reinforcement for America 59

Ill effect of Naval Unreadiness upon British Commerce; and
especially on the West Indies 60

Admiral Keppel puts to Sea with the British Channel Fleet 61

First Guns of the War with France 62

Extreme Length of Byron's Passage 62

He turns back to Halifax 62

D'Estaing's slowness allows Howe to escape from Delaware Bay.
Howe's Celerity 62

Evacuation of Philadelphia by British Army, and its precipitate
Retreat to New York 63

Escape of both Army and Fleet due to d'Estaing's Delays 63

Rapid Action of Lord Howe 64

D'Estaing Arrives off New York 64

Howe's elaborate Dispositions for the Defence of New York Bay
65

Statement of British and French Naval Force 66

D'Estaing decides not to attempt Passage of the Bar, and puts to
Sea 67

Anchors off Narragansett Bay 69

Forces the Entrance to Newport and Anchors inside the Bay 70

The British garrison besieged by superior American and French
forces 70

Howe appears with his Fleet and anchors off the entrance, at Point
Judith 71

Sustained Rapidity of his action at New York 71

D'Estaing Withdraws from Siege of Newport and puts to Sea 73

Manoeuvres of the two Opponents 74

D'Estaing quits the Field, and both Fleets are scattered by a
heavy Gale 75

Howe returns to New York and collects his Fleet 76

D'Estaing calls oft Newport; but abandons the Siege finally,
taking his Fleet to Boston 77

Critical Condition of British garrison in Newport. D'Estaing's
withdrawal compels Americans to raise the siege 77

Howe follows d'Estaing to Boston 77

Discussion of the Conduct of the opposing Admirals 78

Howe gives up his Command and returns to England 80

CHAPTER V

THE NAVAL WAR IN EUROPE. THE BATTLE OF USHANT

1778

Admirals Keppel and D'Orvilliers put to Sea from Portsmouth and
Brest 82

Instructions given to the French Admiral 83

Preliminary Manoeuvres after the two Fleets had sighted one
another 83

The Battle of Ushant 84

A Drawn Battle. The respective Losses 91

The Significance of the Battle in the fighting Development of the
British Navy 93

The "Order of Battle" 93

The Disputes and Courts Martial in Great Britain arising from the
Battle of Ushant 94

Keppel Resigns his Command 97

CHAPTER VI

OPERATIONS IN THE WEST INDIES, 1778-1779. THE BRITISH INVASION OF
GEORGIA AND SOUTH CAROLINA

Influence of Seasonal Conditions upon Naval Operations in America
98

Commercial Importance of the West Indies 98

The French seize Dominica 99

D'Estaing Sails with his Fleet from Boston for Martinique 100

A British Squadron under Hotham sails the same day for Barbados,
with Five Thousand Troops 100

Admiral Barrington's Seizure of Santa Lucia 101

D'Estaing sails to Recapture it 102

Rapidity and Skill shown in Barrington's Movements and
Dispositions 102

D'Estaing's attacks Foiled, both on Sea and on Shore 103

He Abandons the attempt and Returns to Martinique 104

Importance of Santa Lucia in Subsequent Operations 104

Byron Reaches Barbados, and takes over Command from Barrington
105

D'Estaing Captures the British Island Grenada 105

Byron goes to its Relief 106

The Action between the two Fleets, of Byron and d'Estaing, July 6,
1779 106

Criticism of the two Commanders-in-Chief 110

D'Estaing returns to Grenada, which remains French 112

Byron returns to England. British North American Station assigned
to Admiral Arbuthnot, Leeward Islands to Rodney 113

British Operations in Georgia and South Carolina. Capture of
Savannah 113

Fatal Strategic Error in these Operations 114

D'Estaing's attempt to Retake Savannah Foiled 115

His appearance on the coast, however, causes the British to
abandon Narragansett Bay 115

D'Estaing succeeded by de Guichen in North America. Rodney also
arrives 115

CHAPTER VII

THE NAVAL WAR IN EUROPEAN WATERS, 1779. ALLIED FLEETS INVADE THE
ENGLISH CHANNEL. RODNEY DESTROYS TWO SPANISH SQUADRONS AND RELIEVES
GIBRALTAR

Spain declares War against Great Britain 116

Delays in Junction of French and Spanish Fleets 116

They enter the Channel. Alarm in England 117

Plans of the French Government 118

Their Change and Failure. The Allied Fleets return to Brest 119

Criticism of the British Ministry 120

Divergent views of France and Spain 120

Prominence given to Gibraltar, and the resulting Effect upon the
general War 121

Exhaustion of Supplies at Gibraltar 121

Rodney with the Channel Fleet Sails for its Relief, with ultimate
Destination to Leeward Islands Command 121

He Captures a large Spanish Convoy 122

And Destroys a Second Spanish Squadron of Eleven Sail-of-the-Line
123

Distinction of this Engagement 124

Gibraltar and Minorca Relieved 125

Rodney proceeds to the West Indies 126

The Channel Fleet returns to England 126

CHAPTER VIII

RODNEY AND DE GUICHEN'S NAVAL CAMPAIGN IN WEST INDIES. DE GUICHEN
RETURNS TO EUROPE AND RODNEY GOES TO NEW YORK. LORD CORNWALLIS IN THE
CAROLINAS. TWO NAVAL ACTIONS OF COMMODORE CORNWALLIS. RODNEY RETURNS
TO WEST INDIES

1780

Rodney's Force upon arrival in West Indies 128

Action between British and French Squadrons prior to his arrival
129

Rodney and de Guichen put to sea 130

Action between them of April 17, 1780 131

Cause of Failure of Rodney's Attack 133

His Disappointment in his Subordinates 135

His Expression of his Feelings 135

Discussion of the Incidents and Principles involved 137

The Losses of the Respective Fleets 140

They Continue to Cruise 141

The Action of May 15, 1780 142

That of May 19, 1780 144

The Results Indecisive 144

Contrary Personal Effect produced upon the two Admirals by the
encounters 145

De Guichen asks to be Relieved 145

Rodney's Chary Approval of his Subordinates in these two instances
145

Suspicion and Distrust rife in the British Navy at this period
146

Twelve Spanish Sail-of-the-Line, with Ten Thousand Troops, Arrive
at Guadeloupe 147

They refuse Cooeperation with de Guichen in the Windward Islands
147

De Guichen Accompanies them to Haiti with his Fleet 147

He declines to Cooeperate on the Continent with the Americans, and
sails for Europe 148

Rodney Arranges for the protection of the Homeward West India
Trade, and then proceeds to New York 149

Effect of his coming 150

The Year 1780 one of great Discouragement to Americans 151

Summary of the Operations in the Carolinas and Virginia, 1780,
which led to Lord Cornwallis's Surrender in 1781 151

Two Naval Actions sustained by Commodore Cornwallis against
superior French forces, 1780 153

The Year 1780 Uneventful in European seas 157

Capture of a great British Convoy 157

The Armed Neutrality of the Baltic Powers 158

The Accession of Holland to this followed by a Declaration of War
by Great Britain 158

The French Government withdraws all its Ships of War from before
Gibraltar 158

CHAPTER IX

NAVAL CAMPAIGN IN WEST INDIES IN 1781. CAPTURE OF ST. EUSTATIUS BY
RODNEY. DE GRASSE ARRIVES IN PLACE OF DE GUICHEN. TOBAGO SURRENDERS TO
DE GRASSE

Effects of the Great Hurricanes of 1780 in West Indies 159

Rodney's Diminished Force. Arrival of Sir Samuel Hood with
reinforcements 160

Rodney receives Orders to seize Dutch Possessions in Caribbean
160

Capture of St. Eustatius, St. Martin, and Saba 161

The large Booty and Defenceless state of St. Eustatius 161

Effect of these Conditions upon Rodney 161

Hood detached to cruise before Martinique 162

De Grasse arrives there with Twenty Ships-of-the-Line 163

Indecisive Action between de Grasse and Hood 164

Criticism of the two Commanders 166

Junction of Rodney and Hood 166

De Grasse attempts Santa Lucia, and Fails 167

He captures Tobago 168

He decides to take his Meet to the American Continent 168

CHAPTER X

NAVAL OPERATIONS PRECEDING AND DETERMINING THE FALL OF YORKTOWN.
CORNWALLIS SURRENDERS

1781

Summary of Land Operations in Virginia early in 1781 169

Portsmouth Occupied 170

A French Squadron from Newport, and a British from Gardiner's Bay,
proceed to the Scene 170

They meet off the Chesapeake 171

Action between Arbuthnot and des Touches, March 16, 1781 171

The Advantage rests with the French, but they return to Newport.
Arbuthnot enters the Chesapeake 174

Cornwallis reaches Petersburg, Virginia, May 20 175

Under the directions of Sir Henry Clinton he evacuates Portsmouth
and concentrates his forces at Yorktown, August 22
175

The French Fleet under de Grasse Anchors in the Chesapeake, August
30 176

British Naval Movements, in July and August, affecting conditions
in the Chesapeake 176

Admiral Graves, successor to Arbuthnot at New York, joined there
by Sir Samuel Hood, August 28 177

Washington and Rochambeau move upon Cornwallis 178

The British Fleet under Graves arrives off the Chesapeake 179

Action between de Grasse and Graves, September 5 179

Hood's Criticism of Graves's Conduct 181

The British, worsted, return to New York. De Grasse, reinforced,
re-enters the Chesapeake, September 11 184

Cornwallis Surrenders, October 19 184

De Grasse and Hood Return to West Indies 185

CHAPTER XI

NAVAL EVENTS OF 1781 IN EUROPE. DARBY'S RELIEF OF GIBRALTAR, AND THE
BATTLE OF THE DOGGER BANK

Leading Objects of the Belligerents in 1781 186

The Relief of Gibraltar by Admiral Darby 186

Capture of British Convoy with the spoils of St. Eustatius 188

The French and Spanish Fleet under Admiral de Cordova again enters
the English Channel 188

Darby in inferior Force shut up in Tor Bay 188

The Allies Decide not to attack him, but to turn their Efforts
against British Commerce 189

Minorca Lost by British 189

The Battle of the Dogger Bank, between British and Dutch Fleets
190

CHAPTER XII

THE FINAL NAVAL CAMPAIGN IN THE WEST INDIES. HOOD AND DE GRASSE.
RODNEY AND DE GRASSE. THE GREAT BATTLE OF APRIL 12, 1782

Capture and Destruction near Ushant of a great French Convoy for
the West Indies opens the Naval Campaign of 1782 195

Attack upon the Island of St. Kitts by de Grasse and de Bouille
197

Hood sails for its Relief from Barbados 197

His Plan of procedure 198

Balked by an Accident 199

He Succeeds in dislodging de Grasse and taking the Anchorage left
by the French 200

Unsuccessful Attempt by de Grasse to shake Hood's position 203

St. Kitts nevertheless compelled to Surrender owing to having
insufficient Land Force 205

Hood Extricates himself from de Grasse's Superior Force and
Retires 205

Rodney arrives from England and joins Hood 205

Project of French and Spaniards against Jamaica 206

De Grasse sails from Martinique with his whole Fleet and a large
Convoy 207

Rodney's Pursuit 208

Partial Actions of April 9, 1782 209

British Pursuit continues 211

It is favored by the Lagging of two Ships in the French Fleet,
April 11 211

An Accident that night induces de Grasse to bear down, and enables
Rodney to force Action 212

The Battle of April 12 begins 214

A Shift of Wind enables the British to Break the French Order in
three places 217

Consequences of this Movement 218

Resultant Advantages to the British 219

Practices of the opposing Navies in regard to the Aims of Firing
219

Consequences Illustrated in the Injuries received respectively
220

Inadequate Use made by Rodney of the Advantage gained by his Fleet
220

Hood's Criticisms 220

Hood's Opinion shared by Sir Charles Douglas, Rodney's
Chief-of-Staff 222

Rodney's own Reasons for his Course after the Battle 222

His Assumptions not accordant with the Facts 223

Actual Prolonged Dispersion of the French Fleet 224

Hood, Detached in Pursuit, Captures a small French Squadron 224

Rodney Superseded in Command before the news of the victory
reached England 225

The general War Approaches its End 226

CHAPTER XIII

HOWE AGAIN GOES AFLOAT. THE FINAL RELIEF OF GIBRALTAR

1782

Howe appointed to Command Channel Fleet 227

Cruises first in North Sea and in Channel 228

The Allied Fleets in much superior force take Position in the
Chops of the Channel, but are successfully evaded by Howe
229

The British Jamaica Convoy also escapes them 229

Howe ordered to Relieve Gibraltar 229

Loss of the _Royal George_, with Kempenfelt 229

Howe Sails 229

Slow but Successful Progress 230

Great Allied Fleet in Bay of Gibraltar 230

Howe's Success in Introducing the Supplies 231

Negligent Mismanagement of the Allies 231

Partial Engagement when Howe leaves Gibraltar 232

Estimate of Howe's Conduct, and of his Professional Character
232

French Eulogies 232

CHAPTER XIV

THE NAVAL OPERATIONS IN THE EAST INDIES, 1778-1783. THE CAREER OF THE
BAILLI DE SUFFREN

Isolation characteristic of Military and Naval Operations in India
234

Occurrences in 1778 234

Sir Edward Hughes sent to India with a Fleet, 1779 235

The Years prior to 1781 Uneventful 235

A British Squadron under Commodore Johnstone sent in 1781 to seize
Cape of Good Hope 236

A Week Later, a French Squadron under Suffren sails for India
236

Suffren finds Johnstone Anchored in Porto Praya, and attacks at
once 237

The immediate Result Indecisive, but the Cape of Good Hope is
saved by Suffren arriving first 238

Suffren reaches Mauritius, and the French Squadron sails for India
under Comte d'Orves 239

D'Orves dies, leaving Suffren in Command 240

Trincomalee, in Ceylon, captured by Hughes 240

First Engagement between Hughes and Suffren, February 17, 1782
240

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