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Claude H. Miller - Outdoor Sports and Games

C >> Claude H. Miller >> Outdoor Sports and Games




The half-backs are chosen because of their speed and their ability to
advance the ball and to elude the tackling of the opposing team. They
come in for a very large share of the work and must be boys of
superior strength and agility.

Next to the quarter-back the player of the greatest importance is
full-back. His duty first of all is to attend to the kicking end of
the game. For that reason he must practise constantly both with punts
and drop kicks and be able to put the ball between the goal-posts from
all angles and distances within reason. A great many games are won by
a good drop kicker making a field goal at a critical time, and such a
man is of the highest value to a team. As drop kicking, like pitching
in baseball, comes largely from practice, the captain or manager of a
team should see to it that any member of his team who shows any
ability at all in this department should be given every opportunity
and encouragement to develop his skill. A good drop kicker can be used
temporarily from almost any position in the line, whether he be guard,
tackle or end. As a rule, however, the full-back is the player who
does most of the kicking. He must also be a good line bucker and be
able to gain the required distance when called upon.

In general, then, we choose the three centre men because of their
weight, the tackles and ends for speed and ability in tackling, the
quarter-back for his all around ability and his generalship, the
half-backs because of their skill in rushing the ball, and the
full-back for the kicking department. Any man on the team may be
chosen captain. As his work is largely done in practice and in
perfecting plays, unless a team is in the hands of a coach it is
better not to add the duties of captain to the already overburdened
quarter-back. Otherwise he is the logical and ideal man for the
position.

[Illustration: A football gridiron]

There is no game in which team work is more important than in
football. Eleven boys of moderate ability and comparative light weight
who can execute their plays with skill and precision can beat a team
of heavier boys or superior players who may lack their skill and
organization. In the case of a school team it is almost always
possible to secure the services of a coach from among the graduates.
If such a one has had experience on a college team so much the better.

A football field is 330 feet long by 160 feet wide. At each end are
goal posts set 18 feet 6 inches apart, with a crossbar 10 feet above
the ground. The field is marked off in chalk lines similar to a tennis
court, these lines being 5 yards apart. The centre of the field where
the play starts is 55 yards from either end. It is usually customary
to run lines parallel to the sides of the field, also 5 yards apart,
but as a field is but 160 feet wide the first and last of these lines
are but 5 feet from the side lines instead of 5 yards. The lines on a
football field make a checkerboard effect and have given to the field
the name of "gridiron."

Football is a game where eleven men try to force the ball back of the
opposing players' goal line by various efforts in running with it or
in kicking, while the opposing team meanwhile, by throwing the runner
or by pushing him back, try to prevent any gain being made. Each team
is allowed a certain number of attempts to make a certain distance
and, if they fail to do this the ball becomes the property of the
other team to make a similar attempt. Each of these attempts is called
a "down," and, according to the rules, after three attempts, if the
runners have failed to gain the required distance, the ball is given
to their opponents. In practice it is customary for a team to kick the
ball on its last down and thus to surrender it just as far from its
own goal line as possible. The distance that must be made in three
downs according to the present rules is ten yards. Sometimes a team
will not kick on its last down because the distance remaining to be
gained is so little that the quarter-back feels sure that one of his
men can make it, but this is an exception. When ten or more yards are
gained the ball becomes at first down again and the team has three
more attempts to make another ten yards figured from where the ball
was finally downed.

The ultimate object of "rushing the ball," as this play is called, is
to place it on the ground behind the enemy's goal line, which is
called a "touchdown." Sometimes a team will succeed in getting the
ball almost over the goal line and then because of the superior
resistance of its opponents will find that it can advance it no
further. It is then customary for one of the players who has had
practice in drop kicking to attempt to kick what is called a "goal
from the field" or "field goal." This play counts less than a
touchdown in the score, counting but three points, while a touchdown
counts five, but many a game has been won by a field goal.

Football scores between evenly matched teams who play scientifically
are usually low, one or two scores in a game being all that are made.
It frequently happens that neither side will score, but, unlike
baseball, the game does not continue after the time limit has expired,
but simply becomes a tie game. The game is divided into four periods
of fifteen minutes each. There are resting periods of three minutes
each between the first and second and third and fourth periods, and
fifteen minutes between the second and third periods.

At the beginning of the game the two opposing captains toss up a coin
and the winner of the toss has the choice of goals or of the ball. His
decision will be governed by the position of the sun and the wind
conditions, two very important things in football. After each score
the sides change goals, however; so the choice is not so important
unless the game happens to be scoreless.

At the first play the ball is placed in the centre of the field and
is kicked off, a man on the opposing team trying to catch it and to
run back as far as possible before he is tackled and the ball
"downed." The next lineup takes place at this point and the game
proceeds until a score is made. After each score the ball is put in
play just as at the beginning of the game.

The quarter-back calls out a series of numbers and letters called
"signals" before the ball is put into play. These signals will tell
his team what the play is to be, whether a run around end, a kick, or
a mass play on centre, for example. The matter of thorough coaching in
signals is very important and must be practised by the team until it
can tell in an instant just what the play is to be when the play
starts. The centre stoops low and holds the ball in an upright
position on the ground between his feet. The quarter-back is directly
behind him with outstretched hands ready to receive it. After the
signal is given the team must be ready to execute the play, but must
not by look or motion permit its opponents know what the play is to
be. At a touch or word from the quarter-back, the full-back snaps the
ball back and the play starts.

The position of the men on a team is generally as the diagram shows
but for various plays other formations are used, provided that they
do not violate the rules, which specify just how many men must be in
the lineup and how many are permitted behind the line.

The first requirement of signals is to have them simple. In the heat
and stress of a game the players will have but little time to figure
out what the play is to be, even though it may all have seemed very
simple on paper.

To begin a code of signals each position on the team is given a
letter. The eleven positions will require eleven letters and no two
must be alike. It would be possible of course to simply start with the
letter "a" and go to "k," but this system would be too simple and
easily understood by your opponents. A better way is to take a word
easily remembered in which no letter occurs twice, such as
"B-l-a-c-k-h-o-r-s-e-x" or any other combination. "Buy and trade"
"importance," "formidable," and many others are used. The same
principle is used by tradesmen in putting private price marks on their
goods.

Take the words "buy and trade" for example. Their positions right and
left end, abbreviated (r.e. and l.e.), right and left tackle (r.t. and
l.t.), right and left guard (r.g. and l.g.), centre (c.),
quarter-back (q.), right and left half-backs (r.h. and l.h.), and
full-back (f.b.), would be assigned letters as follows:

l.e. l.t. l.g. c. r.g. r.t. r.e. q. l.h. f.b. r.h.
_B U Y A N D T R A D E_

The letters denote not only players but holes in the line, as the
spaces between the players are called. The quarter-back always adds to
his signal a number of other letters or figures which have no meaning,
simply to confuse the opposing players. For example the signal given
is "24-E-N-72-X." The figures 24 and 72 mean nothing, nor does the
"X." The signal says "E will take the ball and go through N," or right
half-back through right guard. Any number of other plays can be
denoted by letters or numbers, for example all punts by figures which
are a multiple of ten, as 10-20, 150-300, and so on.

The beginner in football should first of all be provided with a
suitable uniform; there is no game in which this is more important.
The game is rough and many and harsh are the jolts we receive;
consequently we must use whatever padding and guards we can to provide
against injury.

The custom is to wear a tight jersey with elbow pads, a tight-fitting
canvas jacket and well-padded canvas khaki or moleskin trousers. The
appearance of our uniform is of little consequence, as football
players are not noted for the beauty of their costumes. Heavy woollen
stockings and football shoes complete the outfit. The shoes are the
most important part of the uniform. They should lace with eyelets and
be well provided with leather cleats to prevent slipping.

[Illustration: Football shoes]

A beginner at football can gain a lot of valuable points by carefully
watching the practice of his team from the side lines. He is then in a
position when called upon to fill a given position which he may be
trying for, without obliging the coach or captain to give him
instruction in many rudiments which he can just as well learn from
observation. He must also be thoroughly familiar with the rules and
their interpretation. A violation of the rules in football carries
with it a severe penalty for the team, provided of course that the
referee sees it, consequently, a beginner must be especially careful
not to permit his anxiety to make a good showing to result in being
offside when the ball is put in play, interfering with a man about to
make a fair catch or in doing many other things which the excitement
of the game may occasion.

The moment of putting the ball into play is called a "scrimmage" and
the scrimmage continues until the ball is downed. A ball is "down"
when the runner is brought to a standstill or when he touches the
ground with any part of his body except his hands or feet. At this
point the referee will blow his whistle and a lineup for a new
scrimmage will take place.

[Illustration: The football uniform]

When the ball is kicked, a member of the opposing team who raises his
hand and stands in one spot is entitled to make a catch without
interference, which if successful gives his team a free kick. In a
free kick his opponents may not come within ten yards of where the
ball was caught and some member of his team may kick either a drop
kick, punt or place kick as he sees fit. After a touchdown, which
counts five, a place kick for goal is attempted. If the ball goes
between the goal-posts and above the crossbar it counts one point
additional for the team making the touchdown, or six in all. A score
of one alone cannot be made in football, as the attempt for goal
cannot be made until after a touchdown. This of course does not apply
to a field goal, which may be attempted at any time while the ball is
in possession of the team and which counts three.

The smallest score is from a "safety," which results when a member of
a team is forced to touch the ball down behind his own goal or is
downed there by the opposing team. This play counts two for his
opponents and is an evidence of weakness of the team. It has the
advantage, however, of permitting the ball to be brought out
twenty-five yards to be put into play.

The rules of football were practically unchanged for a number of
years, but the game developed so many dangerous features that nearly
all the colleges recently agreed to certain important changes
especially directed to abolishing mass play and line bucking. For that
reason the rules for the present game may be changed considerably
within a few years. A boy taking up football should therefore
acquaint himself with the latest rules governing the sport.

Football requires careful training, but the best training will come
from actual play itself. In the beginning of the season a period of
ten minutes' hard play is all that a boy should be called upon to do,
unless he is in excellent physical shape. After that the time of
practice should be lengthened until a candidate can go through a game
of two full halves without being exhausted. One reason for many
football injuries is that the players become so completely winded that
the ordinary power of resistance is lost.

Besides actual play the best training is in taking long runs to
improve the wind, one of the most essential things in football. In the
colleges training for nearly all athletic events is done in this way
and a candidate who cannot go out with his squad and run four or five
miles at a stiff dog trot will have but little chance of making his
team.




XVII

LAWN TENNIS

How to make and mark a tennis court--Clay and sod courts--The proper
grip of the racket--Golf--The strokes and equipment


The steady growth in popularity of lawn tennis as well as the splendid
exercise that results from playing this game has given it a sure place
in the field of athletic sports. It is a game that requires a great
deal of skill, and as no one realizes this fact more than those who
are experts, a beginner should not be deterred from playing tennis
simply because he may fear the criticism of the more experienced. The
only way to learn the various strokes and to be able to play a good
game is to practise at every opportunity. It is better to play against
some one who is more skilful than ourselves and who will keep us on
our mettle to make a good showing.

The eye and the muscles must work automatically and with precision. No
amount of written instructions can give us this skill. The personal
outfit for playing tennis is of course very simple. Every player
should own his racket and become accustomed to it. They cost almost
any price up to eight dollars, which will buy the very best rackets
made. The weight and size of the racket will depend on our strength.
The average weight for a man is about fourteen ounces and for a boy an
ounce or two lighter. A skilful player becomes so accustomed to the
feeling and weight of his own racket that often he will play an
indifferent game if he is forced to use any other.

The game of lawn tennis was first played on a lawn or grass court, and
many players still prefer this kind of a court, but the difficulty of
obtaining a good sod, and after having obtained it the greater
difficulty of keeping it in good condition, have increased the
popularity of a skinned or clay court, which is always in fair
condition except immediately after a heavy rain. The expense of
maintaining a tennis court is more than most boys or most families
would care to undertake.

As a rule, tennis courts fall in the same general class with golf
links in that they lend themselves readily to the joint ownership of a
club or school, where the expense falls on a number rather than on an
individual. In a great many places the boys of a town or village have
clubbed together and have obtained permission from some one owning a
piece of vacant ground that is not likely to be sold or improved
within a few years and have built a tennis court on it. This
arrangement helps the appearance of the land, that should be secured
at a very low rental, or none at all if the owner is public spirited
and prefers to see the boys of his town grow up as healthy, athletic
men rather than weaklings who have no place for recreation but in the
village streets, where passing trucks and automobiles will endanger
their lives, or at least cause them to be a nuisance to the public.

[Illustration: The dimensions of a tennis court]

To build a tennis court properly means a lot of work and it should
only be attempted under the direction of some one who understands it.
The things most important are good drainage, good light, and
sufficient room. A double court is 36 feet wide by 72 feet long, but
in tournament games or on courts where experts play it is customary to
have an open space about 60 feet wide by 110 to 120 feet long, to give
the players plenty of room to run back and otherwise to play a fast
game. A court should always be laid out north and south or as near
these points of the compass as possible. In courts running east and
west the sun is sure to be in the eyes of one of the players nearly
all day; this is of course a very serious objection. While it is very
pleasant to play tennis in the shade of a tree or building, a court
should never be located under these conditions if it is possible to
avoid it. A properly placed court should be fully exposed to the sun
all day.

First of all it will be necessary to decide whether a grass or "dirt"
court is to be built. If the grass is fine and the place where the
court is to be happens to be level, there is little to do but to cut
the sod very short with a lawn-mower and to mark out the court. If, on
the contrary, there is much grading or levelling to be done, a dirt
court will be much cheaper and better in the end, as constant playing
on turf soon wears bare spots. The upkeep of a grass court will be
expensive unless it is feasible to move its position from time to
time.

Whatever the court is to be, the first question to consider is proper
drainage. If the subsoil is sandy the chances are that the natural
soakage will take care of the surplus water, but on the contrary, if
the court is at the bottom of a hill or in a low place where clay
predominates, it is necessary to provide some means of getting rid of
the surplus water from rainfalls or our court may be a sea of mud just
when it would be most useful to us. To level a court properly we shall
need the services of some one expert with a levelling instrument of
some kind. It is not safe to depend on what seems to be level to our
eye, as our judgment is often influenced by leaning trees, the
horizon, and other natural objects. With a few stakes driven into the
ground, the tops of which are level, we are enabled to stretch lines
which will give us our levels accurately.

A court should have a slope of a few inches from one end to the other
to carry off water. After the level is determined, all there is to
making a court is to fill in or cut away soil and earth until the
proper level space is obtained. As a rule it is better to dig away for
a court rather than to fill in, as we thus obtain a better bottom and
one that will require but little rolling. In the case of a slope, it
is well so to locate the court that the amount of earth excavated
from one end will be just about sufficient to fill in the other.

The final surfacing of a court is done by means of clay and sand in
the proportion of about four or five to one, the clay of course being
in excess. To mix clay and sand thoroughly, the former should first be
pulverized thoroughly when dry and the mixture sifted over the court
carefully and evenly. The next step is rolling and wetting, and more
rolling and wetting until finally the whole is allowed to dry and is
ready for play. The slight irregularities and roller ridges that often
appear in a court will soon be worn off by the players' feet, but
playing of course will not change the grade. A new court will be
greatly improved by use, but no one should be allowed on a court
except with rubber-soled shoes. Heeled shoes will soon ruin a court,
and it is bad practice even to allow any one to walk over a court
unless with proper footwear.

The preliminary levelling of a court can be accomplished with a rake
and a straight-edged board, but after the clay has become packed and
hard it will be necessary to use considerable force in scraping off
the inequalities. A metal cutting edge, such as a hoe or scraper, will
be found useful. A court should be swept with a coarse broom to
distribute the fine material evenly. Another very good sweeper can be
made from a piece of wood about six or eight feet long to which
several thicknesses of bagging have been tacked or fastened. The final
step in making a court consists in marking it out. Most courts are
marked so that they will be suitable either for singles or doubles or
so that either two or four people can play at a time. Where tape
markers are to be used, the proper distances will appear on the tape
without measuring, but if lime is used for marking a careful plotting
will be necessary to secure the proper distances, after which the
corners should be indicated by angle irons, so that the court may be
re-marked at any time without re-measuring.

[Illustration: A game of doubles in lawn tennis]

Considerable difficulty is often experienced by beginners in marking
out a court, and, in fact, it is not a simple matter. The first thing
of importance is to determine generally one corner of the court and to
get a base line and a side line at a true right angle of ninety
degrees. The same principle may be employed that is used by builders
and surveyors in "squaring a building," as it is called. You will need
a ten-foot pole with marks for the feet indicated on it in lead
pencil, and in addition to this a few 20-penny spikes and a ball of
stout twine. Drive a nail into the ground where you want one corner of
the court and fasten the line to it; then stretch the line to another
nail to mark either a side line or back line. You will then have one
side and the corner fixed, and the problem is to get another line at
right angles to it. Boys who have studied geometry know that "in a
right-angle triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum
of the squares of the other two sides." It isn't necessary to
understand this, but it is the principle employed in "squaring." You
next stretch another line and have some one hold it. On the fixed side
line you measure eight feet from the corner nail and mark it with a
piece of twine tied around the line. You also make a six-foot mark on
the line to be at right angles to it, the exact direction of which is
yet to be determined. Both of these measurements must be accurate.
The boy on the end of the loose line moves it until the distance
between the two pieces of twine is exactly the length of your ten-foot
pole. The angle thus formed is exactly ninety degrees, or a right
angle. Having obtained one side and one end, to finish marking is
simply a matter of making the necessary measurements of a court as
shown on the diagram and marking each intersecting point with a nail
driven into the ground.

[Illustration: How to mark out a tennis court]

Another way to lay out a court is to drive two stakes or nails into
the ground 27 feet apart. (The line of these stakes should be the
position of the net.) Then take two pieces of twine, one 47 feet 5
inches long, and the other 39 feet. Fasten one line to each of the
spikes that you have placed 27 feet apart. Where the two lines meet
as they are pulled taut are the true corners of the court, as there
are only four points where they can meet. The various measurements can
then be marked as above by referring to the diagram. It is customary
to mark a double court and to indicate the lines for singles
afterward.

The game of tennis may be played either by two or four persons, or
sometimes an expert player will stand two beginners. The ball used is
rubber filled with air and covered with white felt and is 2-1/2 inches
in diameter. It is necessary to play with two balls, and to save time
in chasing those that go wild it is customary to play with three or
four.

One of the players begins by serving. The selection of the court is
usually chosen by lot or by tossing up a racket in a way similar to
tossing a cent. The side of the racket where the woven gut appears is
called "rough," and the other side "smooth." This practice is not to
be recommended, as it injures the racket. It is better to toss a coin.
The game of tennis consists in knocking the ball over the net and into
the court of your opponent, keeping up this volley until one side or
player fails to make the return properly or at all, which scores his
opponent a point. While a game in tennis consists of four points, the
simple numbers from one to four are not used. The points run 15,30,
40, game, when one side makes them all. Or it may be "15-30," "15
all," and so on, the score of the server being mentioned first. Where
one side has nothing their score is called "love." When one side has
scored four points the game is won--with this exception: When both
sides are tied at 40, or "deuce," as it is called, the winners must
make two points more than their opponents to win. In this way the game
may be continued for a long time as the points are won first by one
side and then by the other. The score at deuce, or "40 all," will be
denoted as "vantage in" or "vantage out," depending upon whether the
server's side or the other wins one of the two points necessary to win
from "deuce." If first one side, then the other, obtains one of these
points the score will be "vantage in" or "out," as the case may be,
and then "deuce" again, until finally when two points clear are made
it is "game." A set of tennis consists in winning six games, but in
this case also there is a peculiar condition. Where each side wins
five games it is necessary in order to win the set to obtain a lead of
two games. The score in games is then denoted just as in a single
game, "deuce" and "vantage" games being played until a majority of two
is won.

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