Frederick W. Hamilton - Division of Words
F >>
Frederick W. Hamilton >> Division of Words
Transcriber's Note:
1. Some examples which appear not to follow the preceding guideline are
printed thus in the original book. It looks as if sometimes the guideline
is mistaken.
2. Italicized text is rendered as _text_, bold text is rendered as =text=.
3. Accented syllables are marked with a single quote (').
4. This book uses several diacritical marks for phonetics, the table below
lists the codings used: (the "x" represents a character with a diacritical
mark)
Diacritical mark Above Below
Macron (straight line) [=x] [x=]
2 dots (diaeresis, umlaut) [:x] [x:]
Breve (u-shaped symbol) [)x] [x)]
Tilde [~x] [x~]
Small capital I [Ix]
TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI. NO. 35
DIVISION OF
WORDS
RULES FOR THE DIVISION OF WORDS AT
THE ENDS OF LINES, WITH REMARKS
ON SPELLING, SYLLABICATION
AND PRONUNCIATION
BY
FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D.
EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR
UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION
UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
1918
COPYRIGHT, 1918
UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
CHICAGO, ILL.
PREFACE
The principal purpose of this book is to give in brief form the rules and
usages governing the division of words when the measure will not permit
ending the word and the line together. This matter is considered in its
relation to good spacing and to the legibility of the printed page.
Leading up to the discussion will be found some consideration of spelling,
the formation of syllables, pronunciation, and accent. This consideration
is necessarily brief, and no attempt has been made to give the rules for
spelling which are so frequently found in spelling books, or any of them.
In the writer's opinion such rules are of very little practical value. Good
spelling is not so much the result of remembering and applying rules as it
is of observation, practice, and memory. The lists of certain types of
troublesome words may be found useful for ready reference.
Syllable formation, pronunciation, and accent are considered because it is
hoped that the volumes of this series, particularly those in Part VI
(Correct Literary Composition) and Part VIII (History of Printing), will
contribute something to the general education of the apprentice as well as
to his skill in the trade.
CONTENTS
SPELLING
PRONUNCIATION
ACCENT
DIVISION OF WORDS
RULES FOR DIVISION OF WORDS
IMPORTANCE OF SPACING
DIVISION IN LINES OF DISPLAY
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
REVIEW QUESTIONS
DIVISION OF WORDS
The division of words when the words do not exactly fit the register of the
line has always been a source of trouble. In the days of the manuscript
makers devices such as crowding letters, reducing their size, or omitting
them altogether were freely used and words were arbitrarily divided when
the scribes so desired. During the greater part of the time every scribe
divided as he pleased, often in ways which seem very strange to us, like
the Greek custom of dividing always after a vowel and even dividing words
of one syllable. With the invention of printing, however, the number of
these devices was greatly diminished. It became a matter of spacing out the
line or dividing the word. Of course that meant frequent word division and
called for a systematization of rules with regard to this division. These
rules for division are necessarily based on spelling and syllabication.
SPELLING
The idea that there is one right way to combine the letters representing a
certain sound or group of sounds, that is a word, and that all other ways
are wrong and little short of shameful is a comparatively new idea among
us. The English speaking folk held down to a comparatively recent time that
any group of letters which approximately represented the sound was amply
sufficient as a symbol of the word. This sort of phonetic spelling was
commonly followed, and followed with great freedom. No obligation was
recognized to be consistent. In ordinary writing, such as letters and the
like, it is not unusual to find the same word spelled in a variety of ways
in the same document.
The last century has brought about an attempt to standardize spelling into
conventional forms any departure from which is regarded as highly
derogatory to the writer. In many cases these forms are fixed arbitrarily,
and in some there is even now disagreement among the highest authorities.
These difficulties and disagreements have two reasons: First, English is a
composite language, drawn from many sources and at many periods; hence
purely philological and etymological influences intervene, sometimes with
marked results, while there is a difference of opinion as to how far these
influences ought to prevail. Second, the English language uses an alphabet
which fits it very badly. Many letters have to do duty for the expression
of several sounds, and sometimes several of them have nearly or quite the
same sound. For example, there are a number of distinct sounds of _a_, _i_,
and _o_ while _g_ is sometimes indistinguishable from _j_ and _c_ from _k_.
This is not always a matter of modification of sounds by the sounds of
other letters combined with them. One has to learn how to pronounce
_cough_, _dough_, _enough_, and _plough_, the _ough_ having four distinct
sounds in these four words. Each one of these sounds, by the way, could be
exactly as well represented by another combination of letters which would
be unmistakable, viz., _coff_, _doe_, _enuff_, and _plow_. It is impossible
to tell except by the context either the pronunciation or the meaning of
_bow_. If the _ow_ is pronounced as in _low_, it means a weapon. If the
_ow_ is pronounced as in _cow_ it may mean either an obeisance or the front
end of a boat.
This standardization of spelling is unfortunately not quite complete,
although nearly so. Concerning the vast majority of the words in the
English language there is no difference of opinion. A few words are
differently spelled by different authorities. There are seven of these
authorities of the first rank, three English, Stormonth, the Imperial
Dictionary, and the Oxford Dictionary; and four American, Webster's
International, Worcester, the Century Dictionary, and the Standard
Dictionary. American printers may ordinarily disregard the English
authorities.
Any one of the four American authorities may be safely followed. In cases
where two spellings are given in the dictionary consulted, take the first
one. Ordinarily a printing office adopts one of the great authorities as a
standard and conforms the office style to it. All office copy will follow
it and all errors in copy from outside will be corrected by it. Spellings
differing from it will be regarded as errors, even though supported by
other authorities.
This rule, however, is subject to one very important exception. The author
has an unquestionable right to choose his own dictionary or to use any
spelling for which there is any authority, English or American. If he has
his own ideas on the subject of spelling he should be very careful that his
manuscript is correctly spelled according to his ideas, and clearly written
or typed. He should also indicate on the manuscript the authority he wishes
used in correcting the spelling in case of mistakes or illegible passages.
Every care should be taken to make the manuscript copy as correct as
possible and as legible as possible. Such care may be very troublesome at
first, but it will result in great saving of expense.
In addition to the authorities named there are the rules and "reformed"
spellings adopted by the American Philological Association and published by
the United States Government. These are followed fully in some offices,
partly in others, and in many not at all. This is a question of the office
style and the author's wish. If copy is clear and spelled according to any
authority, it is the compositor's duty to follow it. If it is misspelled or
illegible he is to correct it according to the office style unless
otherwise directed by the author in writing. If furnished with such a
direction he is to follow it. This procedure will clear the compositor of
all blame. Any questions which then arise lie between the author and the
proofreader.
In the case of the reformed spellings, however, the departure from the
ordinary appearance of the words is so great that the author cannot be
allowed full freedom to set aside the office style. If he is paying for the
printing he may insist on his spelling. If he is contributing to a
periodical and the printing is done at the publisher's expense it is for
the publisher to determine the style of printing to be used.
Any full consideration of the question of reformed spelling is hardly in
place in this book. The author may perhaps be permitted one observation.
Innovation in the use of the English language would appear to be primarily
the work of scholars, and the adoption of such innovations would seem to
belong to the book printer rather than to the commercial printer. The
public mind as a whole is conservative. It is not hospitable to changes and
does not soon become aware of them, much less familiar with them. The
commercial printer makes his appeal to the mind of the general public. He
will do well to use a vehicle familiar, intelligible, and acceptable to it.
Correct spelling is mainly a matter of habit and observation. To a certain
extent it is a matter of careful pronunciation, but this is not always a
safe or even a possible guide. The vowels preceding or following the one on
which the primary accent falls, sometimes called obscure vowels, are so
slurringly pronounced that even a pedantic precision will hardly make it
possible to indicate clearly which vowel is used. The writer remembers
seeing an examination paper written by a fourth year medical student in
which the word _fever_ was spelled _fevor_. A moment's thought will show
that so far as pronunciation is concerned the word might be spelled
_fevar_, _fevir_, _fevor_, _fever_, or _fevur_ without any appreciable
difference. The correct spelling is merely a matter of observation.
The author has on his desk at the moment of writing these lines half a
dozen good books, each containing a set of rules for spelling. From these
it would be easy to compile a set of fairly good rules. Each of these
rules, however, has exceptions, in some cases quite numerous. To remember
these rules with their exceptions would be a considerable mental task and
to apply them would be cumbrous and time consuming. The effort would
probably resolve itself into an actual learning of the words which present
difficulties. The best way to become a good speller is to form the habit
of careful reading, observing the form of every word as it passes before
the eye and so unconsciously fixing it in the memory. The dictionary should
be consulted whenever there is any doubt.
If you are to write a word, call up a mental picture of it, and if the
picture is not perfectly clear go to the dictionary and fix a correct image
of it in your mind. Be careful to pronounce every word you use as correctly
as possible and you will get all the aid pronunciation can give you.
Careless speaking and careless reading are the two great sources of
incorrect spelling.
The following tables will be found useful in settling practice with regard
to certain troublesome classes of words.
I
American usage tends to the termination _-ize_ where English usage often
sanctions _-ise_. Use the termination _-ise_ in
advertise
advise
appraise
apprise (_to inform_)
arise
chastise
circumcise
comprise
compromise
demise
devise
disfranchise
disguise
emprise
enfranchise
enterprise
exercise
exorcise
franchise
improvise
incise
merchandise
premise
reprise
revise
rise
supervise
surmise
surprise
Use the termination _-ize_ or _-yze_ in
aggrandize
agonize
analyze
anatomize
anglicize
apologize
apostrophize
apprize (_to value_)
authorize
baptize
brutalize
canonize
catechize
catholicize
cauterize
centralize
characterize
christianize
civilize
colonize
criticize
crystallize
demoralize
dogmatize
economize
emphasize
epitomize
equalize
eulogize
evangelize
extemporize
familiarize
fertilize
fossilize
fraternize
galvanize
generalize
gormandize
harmonize
immortalize
italicize
jeopardize
legalize
liberalize
localize
magnetize
memorialize
mesmerize
metamorphize
methodize
minimize
modernize
monopolize
moralize
nationalize
naturalize
neutralize
organize
ostracize
paralyze
particularize
pasteurize
patronize
philosophize
plagiarize
pulverize
realize
recognize
reorganize
revolutionize
satirize
scandalize
scrutinize
signalize
solemnize
soliloquize
specialize
spiritualize
standardize
stigmatize
subsidize
summarize
syllogize
symbolize
sympathize
tantalize
temporize
tranquilize
tyrannize
universalize
utilize
vaporize
vitalize
vocalize
vulcanize
vulgarize
II
Use the termination _-ible_ in the following words:
accessible
admissible
appetible
apprehensible
audible
cessible
coercible
compatible
competible
comprehensible
compressible
conceptible
contemptible
contractible
controvertible
convertible
convincible
corrigible
corrosible
corruptible
credible
decoctible
deducible
defeasible
defensible
descendible
destructible
digestible
discernible
distensible
divisible
docible
edible
effectible
eligible
eludible
enforcible
evincible
expansible
expressible
extendible
extensible
fallible
feasible
fencible
flexible
forcible
frangible
fusible
gullible
horrible
illegible
immiscible
impassible
intelligible
irascible
legible
miscible
negligible
partible
passible (_susceptible_)
perceptible
permissible
persuasible
pervertible
plausible
possible
producible
reducible
reflexible
refrangible
remissible
reprehensible
resistible
responsible
reversible
revertible
risible
seducible
sensible
tangible
terrible
transmissible
visible
In all other cases use _-able_.
III
The following nouns end in _-er_.
abetter
abstracter
accepter
adapter
adviser
affirmer
aider
almoner
annoyer
arbiter
assenter
asserter
bailer
caster
censer (vessel)
concocter
condenser
conferrer
conjurer
consulter
continuer
contradicter
contriver
convener
conveyer
corrupter
covenanter
debater
defender
deliberater
deserter
desolater
deviser
discontinuer
disturber
entreater
exalter
exasperater
exciter
executer (_except in law_)
expecter
frequenter
granter
idolater
imposer
impugner
incenser
inflicter
insulter
interceder
interpreter
interrupter
inviter
jailer
lamenter
mortgager (_except in law_)
obliger
obstructer
obtruder
perfecter
perjurer
preventer
probationer
propeller
protester
recognizer
regrater
relater
respecter
sailer (_ship_)
sorcerer
suggester
supplanter
upholder
vender
The following nouns end in _-or_.
abbreviator
abductor
abettor (_law_)
abominator
abrogator
accelerator
acceptor
accommodator
accumulator
actor
adjudicator
adjutor
administrator
admonitor
adulator
adulterator
aggregator
aggressor
agitator
amalgamator
animator
annotator
antecessor
apparitor
appreciator
arbitrator
assassinator
assessor
benefactor
bettor
calculator
calumniator
captor
castor (_oil_)
censor
coadjutor
collector
competitor
compositor
conductor
confessor
conqueror
conservator
consignor
conspirator
constrictor
constructor
contaminator
contemplator
continuator
contractor
contributor
corrector
councillor
counsellor
covenantor (_law_)
creator
creditor
cultivator
cunctator
debtor
decorator
delator (_law_)
denominator
denunciator
depredator
depressor
deteriorator
detractor
dictator
dilator
director
dissector
disseizor
disseminator
distributor
divisor
dominator
donor
effector
elector
elevator
elucidator
emulator
enactor
equivocator
escheator
estimator
exactor
excavator
exceptor
executor (_law_)
exhibitor
explorator
expositor
expostulator
extensor
extirpator
extractor
fabricator
factor
flexor
fornicator
fumigator
generator
gladiator
governor
grantor (_law_)
habitator
imitator
impostor
impropriator
inaugurator
inceptor
incisor
inheritor
initiator
innovator
insinuator
institutor
instructor
interlocutor
interpolator
interrogator
inventor
investor
juror
lector
legator
legislator
lessor
mediator
modulator
monitor
mortgagor (_law_)
multiplicator
narrator
navigator
negotiator
nonjuror
numerator
objector
obligor (_law_)
observator
operator
originator
pacificator
participator
peculator
percolator
perforator
perpetrator
persecutor
perturbator
possessor
preceptor
precursor
predecessor
predictor
prevaricator
procrastinator
procreator
procurator
professor
progenitor
projector
prolocutor
promulgator
propagator
propitiator
proprietor
prosecutor
protector
protractor
purveyor
recognizor (_law_)
recriminator
reflector
regenerator
regulator
relator (_law_)
rotator
sacrificator
sailor (_seaman_)
scrutator
sculptor
sectator
selector
senator
separator
sequestrator
servitor
solicitor
spectator
spoliator
sponsor
successor
suitor
supervisor
suppressor
surveyor
survivor
testator
tormentor
traitor
transgressor
translator
valuator
vendor (_law_)
venerator
ventilator
vindicator
violator
visitor
IV
Words which in their shortest form end in _-d_, _-de_, _-ge_, _-unit_,
_-rt_, _-se_, _-sr_, take the ending _-sion_; e.g., _abscind_,
_abscission_; _include_, _inclusion_; _emerge_, _emersion_; _remit_,
_remission_; _infuse_, _infusion_; _repress_, _repression_.
All others take the ending _-tion_.
The following are irregularities:
adhesion
assertion
attention
coercion
cohesion
crucifixion
declension
dimension
dissension
distortion
divulsion
expulsion
impulsion
insertion
intention
occasion
propulsion
recursion
repulsion
revulsion
scansion
suspicion
tension
version
Words ending in _-ance_, _-ence_; _-ancy_, _-ency_; _-ant_, and _-ent_,
often cause confusion when carelessly written.
The following is a list of the more common words with the _e_ form.
abducent
abhorrence, -ent
abluent
absent, -ence
absorbent
abstergent
abstinence, -ent
adherence, -ent
advertency, -ent
affluence, -ent
antecedence, -ent
apparent
appertinent
appetence, -ency
ardent
benevolence, -ent
circumference
coexistence
coherence, -ent
coincidence, -ent
competence, -ent
concurrence, -ent
condolence
conference
confidence, -ent
confluence, -ent
consentient
consequence
consequent
consistence, -ent
consistency
constituent
continence, -ent
convenience, -ent
corpulence, -ent
correspondence, -ent
currency, -ent
deference
delinquency, -ent
dependence, -ent
deponent
descendent (_adj._)
despondency, -ent
difference
diffidence, -ent
diffluent
efficiency, -ent
eminence, -ency
eminent
excellence, -ency
excellent
existence, -ent
expediency
feculence, -ent
flocculence, -ent
fluency, -ent
fraudulence, -ent
imminence, -ent
impatience, -ent
impellent
imprudence, -ent
impudence, -ent
incipience, -ent
incumbency, -ent
independence, -ent
indolence, -ent
inference
inherence, -ent
intermittent
iridescence, -ent
lambent
latency, -ent
leniency, -ent
magniloquence, -ent
malevolence, -ent
mellifluence, -ent
mollient
obedience, -ent
occurrence, -ent
omniscience, -ent
opulence, -ency
opulent
patience, -ent
pendent (_adj._)
pendency
penitence, -ent
permanence, -ent
permanency
pertinence, -ent
pestilence, -ent
poculent
portent
potency, -ent
precedence, -ent
preference
prescience, -ent
presence, -ent
presidency, -ent
proficiency, -ent
prominence, -ent
proponent
providence, -ent
prudence, -ent
purulence, -ent
quintessence
recurrence, -ent
reference
refluence, -ent
repellent
residence, -ency
resident
resolvent
resplendence, -ent
respondent
reverence, -ent
sentient
solvency, -ent
somnolency, -ent
subserviency, -ent
subsidence, -ency
subsistence, -ent
succulent
superintendence
superintendency
superintendent
tendence, -ency
transcendence, -ent
transcendency
transference
transient
transparency, -ent
transplendency, -ent
turbulence, -ent
vicegerency, -ent
virulence, -ent
Nearly all other words of this type take the _a_ form.
* * * * *
The instructor should drill the pupils in spelling not only these "catch"
words, but a wide range of English words. These lessons may be taken to
advantage from some of the books mentioned in the list for supplementary
reading, from any other good spelling book, or even from the pages of any
well printed book or magazine. The words should be given out orally and
written down by the pupil. A good exercise is the reading of a paragraph
from any good book, or some stanza of poetry, the passage read to be taken
down by the pupil with care to spell, punctuate, and capitalize properly.
A number of topics sometimes treated under the head of spelling will be
found discussed in the "Printer's Manual of Style" (No. 41).
PRONUNCIATION
The English language is a difficult one to pronounce as well as to spell.
This arises from two causes. The English language has some sounds not
generally found in other languages, such as _w_ and _th_. As has already
been pointed out, the alphabet fits the language very badly. Careful
lexicographers indicate no less than seven sounds of _a_, five of _e_,
three of _i_, four of _o_ and six of _u_, as shown in the following table:
[=a] as in [=a]le
[Ia] as in sen[Ia]te
[)a] as in [)a]m
a as in ask
[a:] as in [a:]ll
ae as in faether
(a) as in fin(a)l
[=e] as in [=e]ve
[)e] as in [)e]nd
[Ie] as in ev[Ie]nt
[~e] as in f[~e]rn
(e) as in prud(e)nce
[=i] as in [=i]ce
[Ii] as in [Ii]dea
[)i] as in p[)i]n
[=o] as in [=o]ld
[Io] as in [Io]pen
[)o] as in [)o]dd
o as in orb
[=u] as in [=u]se
[Iu] as in [Iu]nite
[)u] as in [)u]p
[u:] as in r[u:]de
[u=] as in f[u=]ll
u as in urn
In addition to these there are diphthongs, combinations of vowel sounds
pronounced as one syllable, such as
_ou_ as in _out_
_oi_ as in _oil_
There are also a number of digraphs or combinations of vowels or consonants
which have but one sound, such as
_ai_ as in _rain_
_eo_ as in _people_
_ou_ as in _soup_
_ou_ as in _soul_
_ph_ as in _phalanx_
_ch_ as in _chorus_ or _chair_
_C_ has two sounds, hard before _a_, _o_, and _u_, as in _cat_, _cot_, and
_cut_, and soft before _e_, _i_, and _y_, as in _cell_, _city_, and
_cycle_.
_G_ has two sounds, hard before _a_, _o_, and _u_, as in _gate_, _gone_,
and _gun_, soft before _e_, _i_, and _y_, as in _gem_, _gin_, and _gyve_,
although it is sometimes hard before _i_ as in _girl_.
_Ch_ is sometimes soft as in _chair_ and _arch_, and sometimes hard as in
_choir_.
_Th_ has two sounds, soft, or surd, as in _thin_ and _death_, and hard, or
sonant, as in _then_ and _smooth_.
_S_ has two sounds, soft, or surd, as in _soft_ and _this_, and hard, or
sonant, as in _has_ and _wise_.
We have, therefore, twenty-six letters with which to express fifty or more
sounds, not counting the digraphs and diphthongs.
Correct pronunciation depends upon three things, correct sounding of the
letters, correct division into syllables, and correct placing of the
accent.
A syllable is the smallest separately articulated, or pronounced, element
in speech, or one of the parts into which speech is broken. It consists of
a vowel alone or accompanied by one or more consonants and separated by
them, or by a pause, from a preceding or following vowel. This division of
words into syllables is indicated in dictionaries by the use of the hyphen
thus: _sub-trac-tion_, _co-or-din-ate_. It will be observed that in the
first of these examples the vowels are all separated by consonants, while
in the second two of them are separated by a pause only.
The English language has the further peculiarity of using _l_ and _n_ as
vowels in syllabication, as in _middle_ (_mid-dl_) and _reck-on_
(_reck-n_).
The division of words into syllables for pronunciation is generally, but
not always, the same as that which should be followed in case the word has
to be divided typographically. As these text-books are intended to help the
apprentice as a speaker and writer of English as well as a printer, it is
worth while to give some attention to syllabication for pronunciation
before proceeding to discuss typographical division.[The illustrations from
this point to the end of this section on page 16 are not typographic
divisions. They concern pronunciation only.]
Two letters forming a diphthong or digraph are not to be separated.
_Coin-age_ (_oi_ diphthong) but _co-in-ci-dence_ (_oi_ not a diphthong).
_Excess_ (_ss_ digraph, pronounced practically like a single s) gives
_ex-cess-es_, _ex-cess-ive_, etc. Whether or not the letters thus occurring
together form a diphthong or digraph will depend on the derivation of the
word, thus in _cat-head_ (verb), a nautical term, _th_ is not a digraph but
in _ca-the-dral_ _th_ is a digraph, as is usually the case with these two
letters. You would not say _cat-hed-ral_.
Two vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong, coming together but sounded
separately belong to separate syllables.
_A-or-ta_, _co-op-er-ate_, but _coop-er-age_, _moi-e-ty_.
Do not end a syllable with
(_a_) _c_ or _g_ when soft, _en-ti-cing_, but _dic-tion_, _wa-ges_
but _wag-on_.
(_b_) _t_, _s_, _z_, _c_, _sc_, _g_, and _d_, when followed by _i_
or _e_ giving the sound of _sh_; _ra-tion-al_, _o-cean_, _re-gion_,
_as-cen-sion_.
