George Puttenham - The Arte of English Poesie

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_CHAP. V._

_Of Stile_.

Stile is a constant & continuall phrase or tenour of speaking and writing,
extending to the whole tale or processe of the poeme or historie, and not
properly to any peece or member of a tale: but is of words speeches and
sentences together, a certaine contriued forme and qualitie, many times
naturall to the writer, many times his peculier by election and arte, and
such as either he keepeth by skill, or holdeth on by ignorance, and will
not or peraduenture cannot easily alter into any other. So we say that
_Ciceros_ stile and _Salusts_ were not one, nor _Cesars_ and _Linies_, nor
_Homers_ and _Hesiodus_, nor _Herodotus_ and _Theucidides_, nor
_Euripides_ & _Aristophones_, nor _Erasmus_ and _Budeus_ stiles. And
because this continuall course and manner of writing or speech sheweth the
matter and disposition of the writers minde, more than one or few words or
sentences can shew, therefore there be that haue called stile, the image
of man [_mentes character_] for man is but his minde, and as his minde is
tempered and qualified, so are his speeches and language at large, and his
inward conceits be the mettall of his minde and his manner of vtterance
the very warp & woofe of his conceits, more plaine, or busie and
intricate, or otherwise affected after the rate. Most men say that not any
one point in all _Phisiognomy_ is so certaine, as to iudge a mans manners
by his eye: but more assuredly in mine opinion, by his dayly maner of
speech and ordinary writing. For if the man be graue, his speech and stile
is graue: if light-headed, his stile and language also light: if the
minde be haughtie and hoate, the speech and stile is also vehement and
stirring: if it be colde and temperate, the stile is also very modest: if
it be humble, or base and meeke, so is also the language and stile. And
yet peraduenture not altogether so, but that euery mans stile is for the
most part according to the matter and subiect of the writer, or so ought
to be and conformable thereunto. Then againe may it be said as wel, that
men doo chuse their subjects according to the mettal of their minds, &
therfore a high minded man chuseth him high & lofty matter to write of.
The base courage, matter base & lowe, the meane & modest mind, meane &
moderate matters after the rate. Howsoeuer it be, we finde that vnder
these three principall complexions (if I may with leaue so terme them)
high, meane and base stile, there be contained many other humors or
qualities of stile, as the plaine and obscure, the rough and smoth, the
facill and hard, the plentifull and barraine, the rude and eloquent, the
strong and feeble, the vehement and cold stiles, all which in their euill
are to be reformed, and the good to be kept and vsed. But generally to
haue the stile decent & comely it behooueth the maker or Poet to follow
the nature of his subiect, that is if his matter be high and loftie that
the stile be so to, if meane, the stile also to be meane, if base, the
stile humble and base accordingly: and they that do otherwise vse it,
applying to meane matter, hie and loftie stile, and to hie matters, stile
eyther meane or base, and to the base matters, the meane or hie stile, do
vtterly disgrace their poesie and shew themselues nothing skilfull in
their arte, nor hauing regard to the decencie, which is the chiefe praise
of any writer. Therefore to ridde all louers of learning from that errour,
I will as neere as I can set downe, which matters be hie and loftie, which
be but meane, and which be low and base, to the intent the stiles may be
fashioned to the matters, and keepe their _decorum_ and good proportion in
euery respect: I am not ignorant that many good clerkes be contrary to
mine opinion, and say that the loftie style may be decently vsed in a
meane and base subiect & contrariwise, which I do in parte acknowledge,
but with a reasonable qualification. For _Homer_ hath so vsed it in his
trifling worke of _Batrachomyomachia_: that is in his treatise of the
warre betwixt the frogs and the mice. _Virgill_ also in his _bucolickes_,
and in his _georgicks_, whereof the one is counted meane, the other base,
that is the husbandmans discourses and the shepheards, but hereunto
serueth a reason in my simple conceite: for first to that trifling poeme
of _Homer_, though the frog and the mouse be but litle and ridiculous
beasts, yet to treat of warre is an high subiect, and a thing in euery
respect terrible and daungerous to them that it alights on: and therefore
of learned dutie asketh martiall grandiloquence, if it be set foorth in
his kind and nature of warre, euen betwixt the basest creatures that can
be imagined: so also is the Ante or pismire, and they be but little
creeping things, not perfect beasts, but _insects_, or wormes: yet in
describing their nature & instinct, and their manner of life approching to
the forme of a common-welth, and their properties not vnlike to the
vertues of most excellent gouernors and captaines, it asketh a more
maiestie of speach then would the description of any other beastes life or
nature, and perchance of many matters perteyning vnto the baser sort of
men, because it resembleth the historie of a ciuill regiment, and of them
all the chiefs and most principall which is _Monarchie_: so also in his
_bucolicks_, which are but pastorall, speaches and the basest of any other
poeme in their owne proper nature: _Virgill_ vsed a somewhat swelling
stile when he came to insinuate the birth of _Marcellus_ heire apparant to
the Emperour _Augustus_, as child to his sister, aspiring by hope and
greatnes of the house, to the succession of the Empire, and establishment
thereof in that familie: whereupon _Virgill_ could do no lesse then to vse
such manner of stile, whatsoeuer condition the poeme were of and this was
decent, & no fault or blemish, to confound the tennors of the stiles for
that cause. But now when I remember me againe that this _Eglogue_, (for I
haue read it somewhere) was conceiued by _Octauian_ th'Emperour to be
written to the honour of _Pollio_ a citizen of Rome, & of no great
nobilitie, the same was misliked againe as an implicatiue, nothing decent
nor proportionable to _Pollio_ his fortunes and calling, in which respect
I might say likewise the stile was not to be such as if it had bene for
the Emperours owne honour, and those of the bloud imperiall, then which
subiect there could not be among the _Romane_ writers an higher nor grauer
to treat vpon: so can I not be remoued from mine opinion, but still me
thinks that in all decencie the stile ought to conforme with the nature of
the subiect, otherwise if a writer will seeme to obserue no _decorum_ at
all, nor passe how he fashion his tale to his matter, who doubteth but he
may in the lightest cause speake like a Pope, & in the grauest matters
prate like a parrat, & finde wordes & phrases ynough to serue both turnes,
and neither of them commendably, for neither is all that may be written of
Kings and Princes such as ought to keepe a high stile, nor all that may be
written vpon a shepheard to keepe the low, but according to the matter
reported, if that be of high or base nature: for euery pety pleasure, and
vayne delight of a king are not to accompted high matter for the height of
his estate, but meane and perchaunce very base and vile: nor so a Poet or
historiographer, could decently with a high stile reporte the vanities of
_Nero_, the ribaudries of _Caligula_, the idleness of _Domitian_, & the
riots of _Heliogabalus_. But well the magnanimitie and honorable ambition
of _Caesar_, the prosperities of _Augustus_, the grauitie of _Tiberius_,
the bountie of _Traiane_, the wisedome of _Aurelius_, and generally all
that which concerned the highest honours of Emperours, their birth,
alliaunces, gouernment, exploits in warre and peace, and other publike
affaires: for they be matter stately and high, and require a stile to be
lift vp and aduaunced by choyse of wordes, phrases, sentences, and
figures, high, loftie, eloquent, & magnifik in proportion: so be the meane
matters, to be caried with all wordes and speaches of smothnesse and
pleasant moderation, & finally the base things to be holden within their
teder, by low, myld, and simple maner of vtterance, creeping rather then
clyming, & marching rather then mounting vpwardes, with the wings of the
stately subiects and stile.

_CHAP. VI._

_Of the high, low, and meane subiect._

The matters therefore that concerne the Gods and diuine things are highest
of all other to be couched in writing, next to them the noble gests and
great fortunes of Princes, and the notable accidents of time, as the
greatest affaires of war & peace, these be all high subiectes, and
therefore are deliuered ouer to the Poets _Hymnick_ & historicall who be
occupied either in diuine laudes, or in _heroicall_ reports: the meane
matters be those that concerne meane men their life and busines, as
lawyers, gentlemen, and marchants, good housholders and honest Citizens,
and which found neither to matters of state nor of warre, nor leagues, nor
great alliances, but smatch all the common conuersation, as of the
ciuiller and better sort of men: the base and low matters be the doings of
the common artificer, seruingman, yeoman, groome, husbandman,
day-labourer, sailer, shepheard, swynard, and such like of homely calling,
degree and bringing vp: so that in euery of the sayd three degrees, not
the selfe same vertues be egally to be praysed nor the same vices, egally
to be dispraised, nor their loues, mariages, quarels, contracts and other
behauiours, be like high nor do require to be set fourth with the like
stile: but euery one in his degree and decencie, which made that all
_hymnes_ and histories, and Tragedies, were written in the high stile; all
Comedies and Enterludes and other common Poesies of loues, and such like
in the meane stile, all _Eglogues_ and pastorall poemes in the low and
base flile, otherwise they had bene vtterly disproporcioned: likewise for
the same cause some phrases and figures be onely peculiar to the high
stile, some to the base or meane, some common to all three, as shalbe
declared more at large hereafter when we come to speake of figure and
phrase: also some wordes and speaches and sentences doe become the high
stile, that do not become th'other two. And contrariwise, as shalbe said
when we talke of words and sentences: finally some kinde of measure and
concord, doe not beseeme the high stile, that well become the meane and
low, as we haue said speaking of concord and measure. But generally the
high stile is disgraced and made foolish and ridiculous by all wordes
affected, counterfait, and puffed vp, as it were a windball carrying more
countenance then matter, and can not be better resembled then to these
midsommer pageants in London, where to make the people wonder are set
forth great and vglie Gyants marching as if they were aliue, and armed at
all points, but within they are stuffed full of browne paper and tow,
which the shrewd boyes vnderpeering, do guilefully discouer and turne to a
great derision: also all darke and vnaccustomed wordes, or rusticall and
homely, and sentences that hold too much of the mery & light, or infamous
& vnshamefast are to be accounted of the same sort, for such speaches
become not Princes, nor great estates, nor them that write of their doings
to vtter or report and intermingle with the graue and weightie matters.

_CHAP. VII._

_Of Figures and figuratuie speaches_.

As figures be the instruments of ornament in euery language, so be they
also in a sorte abuses or rather trespasses in speach, because they passe
the ordinary limits of common vtterance, and be occupied of purpose to
deceiue the eare and also the minde, drawing it from plainnesse and
simplicitie to a certaine doublenesse, whereby our talke is the more
guilefull & abusing, for what els is your _Metaphor_ but an inuersion of
sence by transport; your _allegorie_ by a duplicitie of meaning or
dissimulation vnder couert and darke intendments: one while speaking
obscurely and in riddle called _AEnigma_: another while by common prouerbe
or Adage called _Paremia_: then by merry skoffe called _Ironia_: then by
bitter tawnt called _Sarcasmus_: then by periphrase or circumlocution when
all might be said in a word or two: then by incredible comparison giuing
credit, as by your _Hyperbole_, and many other waies seeking to inueigle
and appassionate the mind: which thing made the graue iudges _Areopagites_
(as I find written) to forbid all manner of figuratiue speaches to be vsed
before them in their consistorie of Iustice, as meere illusions to the
minde, and wresters of vpright iudgement, saying that to allow such manner
of forraine & coulored talke to make the iudges affectioned, were all one
as if the carpenter before he began to square his timber would make his
squire crooked: in so much as the straite and vpright mind of a Iudge is
the very rule of iustice till it be peruerted by affection. This no doubt
is true and was by them grauely considered: but in this case because our
maker or Poet is appointed not for a iudge but rather for a pleader, and
that of pleasant & louely causes and nothing perillous, such as be those
for the triall of life, limme, or liuelyhood; and before iudges neither
sower nor seuere, but in the care of princely dames, yong ladies,
gentlewomen and courtiers, beyng all for the most part either meeke of
nature, or of pleasant humour, and that all his abuses tende but to
dispose the hearers to mirth and sollace by pleasant conueyance and
efficacy of speach, they are not in truth to be accompted vices but for
vertues in the poetical science very commendable. On the other side, such
trespasses in speach (whereof there be many) as geue dolour and disliking
to the eare & minde, by any foule indecencie or disproportion of sound,
situation, or sence, they be called and not without cause the vicious
parts or rather heresies of language: wherefore the matter resteth much in
the definition and acceptance of this word [_decorum_] for whatsoeuer is
so, cannot iustly be misliked. In which respect it may come to passe that
what the Grammarian setteth downe for a viciositee in speach may become a
vertue and no vice, contrariwise his commended figure may fall into a
reprochfull fault: the best and most assured remedy whereof is, generally
to follow the saying of _Bias: ne quid nimis_. So as in keeping measure,
and not exceeding nor shewing any defect in the vse of his figures, he
cannot lightly do amisse, if he haue besides (as that must needes be) a
speciall regard to all circumstances of the person, place, time, cause and
purpose he hath in hand, which being well obserued it easily auoideth all
the recited inconueniences, and maketh now and then very vice goe for a
formall virtue in the excrcise of this Arte.

_CHAP. VIII._

_Sixe pointes set downe by our learned forefathers for a generall
regiment of all good vtterance be it by mouth or by writing._

Bvt before there had bene yet any precise obseruation made of figuratiue
speeches, the first learned artificers of language considered that the
bewtie and good grace of vtterance rested in no many pointes: and
whatsoeuer transgressed those lymits, they counted it for vitious; and
thereupon did set downe a manner of regiment in all speech generally to be
obserued, consisting in sixe pointes. First they said that there ought to
be kept a decent proportion in our writings and speach, which they termed
_Analogia._ Secondly, that it ought to be voluble vpon the tongue, and
tunable to the eare, which they called _Tasis_. Thirdly, that it were not
tediously long, but briefe and compendious, as the matter might beare,
which they called _Syntomia._ Fourthly, that it should cary an orderly and
good construction, which they called _Synthesis_. Fiftly, that it should
be a sound, proper and naturall speach, which they called _Ciriologia_.
Sixtly, that it should be liuely & stirring, which they called _Tropus_.
So as it appeareth by this order of theirs, that no vice could be
committed in speech, keeping within the bounds of that restraint. But sir,
all this being by them very well conceiued, there remayned a greater
difficultie to know what this proportion, volubilitie, good construction,
& the rest were, otherwise we could not be euer the more relieued. It was
therefore of necessitie that a more curious and particular description
should bee, made of euery manner of speech, either transgressing or
agreeing with their said generall prescript. Whereupon it came to passe,
that all the commendable parts of speech were set foorth by the name of
figures, and all the illaudable partes vnder the name of vices, or
viciosities, of both which it shall bee spoken in their places.

_CHAP. IX_.

_How the Greeks first, and afterward the Latines, inuented new names for
euery figure, which this Author is also enforced to doo in his vulgar_.

The Greekes were a happy people for the freedome & liberty of their
language, because it was allowed them to inuent any new name that they
listed, and to peece many words together to make of them one entire, much
more significatiue than the single word. So among other things did they to
their figuratiue speeches deuise cortainen ames. The Latines came somewhat
behind them in that point, and for want of conuenient single wordes to
expresse that which the Greeks could do by cobling many words together,
they were faine to vse the Greekes still, till after many yeares that the
learned Oratours and good Grammarians among the Romaines, as _Cicero,
Verro, Quintilian_, & others strained themselues to giue the Greeke wordes
Latin names, and yet nothing so apt and fitty. The same course are we
driuen to follow in this description, since we are enforced to cull out
for the vse of our Poet or maker all the most commendable figures. Now to
make them knowen (as behoueth) either we must do it by th'originall Greeke
name or by the Latine, or by our owne. But when I consider to what sort of
Readers I write, & how illfaring the Greeke terme would sound in the
English eare, then also how short the Latines come to expresse manie of
the Greeke originals. Finally, how well our language serueth to supplie
the full signification of them both, I haue thought it no lesse lawfull,
yea peraduenture under licence of the learned, more laudable to vse our
owne naturall, if they be well chosen, and of proper signification, than
to borrow theirs. So shall not our English Poets, though they be to seeke
of the Greeke and Latin languages, lament for lack of knowledge sufficient
to the purpose of this arte. And in case any of these new English names
giuen by me to any figure, shall happen to offend, I pray that the learned
will beare with me and to thinke the straungenesse thereof proceedes but
of noueltie and disaquaintance with our eares, which in processe of time,
and by custome will frame very well: and such others as are not learned in
the primitiue languages, if they happen to hit upon any new name of myne
(so ridiculous in their opinion) as may moue them to laughter, let such
persons, yet assure themselues that such names go as neare as may be to
their originals, or els serue better to the purpose of the figure then the
very originall, reseruing alwayes, that such new name should not be
vnpleasant in our vulgar nor harsh vpon the tong: and where it shall
happen otherwise, that it may please the reader to thinke that hardly any
other name in our English could be found to serue the turne better. Againe
if to auoid the hazard of this blame I should haue kept the Greek or Latin
still it would haue appeared a little too scholasticall for our makers,
and a peece of worke more fit for clerkes then for Courtiers for whose
instruction this trauaile is taken: and if I should haue left out both the
Greeke and Latine name, and put in none of our owne neither: well
perchance might the rule of the figure haue bene set downe, but no
conuenient name to hold him in memory. It was therefore expedient we
deuised for euery figure of importance his vulgar name, and to ioyne the
Greeke or Latine originall with them; after that sort much better
satisfying aswel the vulgar as the learned learner, and also the authors
owne purpose, which is to make of a rude rimer, a learned and a Courtly
Poet.

_CHAP. X._

_A division of figures, and how they serue in exornation of language._

And because our chiefe purpose herein is for the learning of Ladies and
young Gentlewomen, or idle Courtiers, desirous to become skilful in their
owne mother tongue, and for their priuate recreation to make now & then
ditties of pleasure, thinking for our parte none other science so fit for
them & the place as that which teacheth _beau_ semblant, the chiefe
profession aswell of Courting as of poesie: since to such manner of mindes
nothing is more combersome then tedious doctrines and schollarly methodes
of discipline, we haue in our owne conceit deuised a new and strange
modell of this arte, fitter to please the Court then the schoole, and yet
not vnnecessarie for all such as be willing themselues to become good
makers in the vulgar, or to be able to iudge of other mens makings:
wherefore, intending to follow the course which we haue begun, thus we
say: that though the language of our Poet or maker being pure & clenly, &
not disgraced by such vicious parts as haue bene before remembred in the
Chapter of language, be sufficiently pleasing and commendable for the
ordinarie vse of speech; yet is not the same so well appointed for all
purposes of the excellent Poet, as when it is gallantly arrayed in all his
colours which figure can set vpon it, therefore we are now further to
determine of figures and figuratiue speeches. Figuratiue speech is a
noueltie of language euidently (and yet not absurdly) estranged from the
ordinarie habite and manner of our dayly talke and writing and figure it
selfe is a certaine liuely or good grace set vpon wordes, speaches and
sentences to some purpose and not in vaine, giuing them ornament or
efficacie by many maner of alterations in shape, in sounde, and also in
sence, sometime by way of surplusage, sometime by defect, sometime by
disorder, or mutation, & also by putting into our speaches more pithe and
substance, subtilitie, quicknesse, efficacie or moderation, in this or
that sort tuning and tempring them, by amplification, abridgement,
opening, closing, enforcing, meekening, or otherwise disposing them to the
best purpose whereupon the learned clerks who haue written methodically of
this Arte in the two master languages, Greeke and Latine, haue sorted all
their figures into three rankes, and the first they bestowed vpon the Poet
onely: the second vpon the Poet and Oratour indifferently: the third vpon
the Oratour alone. And that first sort of figures doth serue th'eare onely
and may be therefore called _Auricular_: your second serues the conceit
onely and not th'eare, and may be called _sensable_, not sensible nor yet
sententious: your third sort serues as well th'eare as the conceit and may
be called _sententious figures_, because not only they properly apperteine
to full sentences, for bewtifying them with a currant & pleasant
numerositie, but also giuing them efficacie, and enlarging the whole
matter besides with copious amplifications. I doubt not but some busie
carpers will scorne at my new deuised termes: _auricular_ and _sensable_,
saying that I might with better warrant haue vsed in their steads these
words, _orthographicall_ or _syntacticall_, which the learned Grammarians
left ready made to our hands, and do importe as much as th'other that I
haue brought, which thing peraduenture I deny not in part, and
neuerthelesse for some causes thought them not so necessarie: but with
these maner of men I do willingly beare, in respect of their laudable
endeuour to allow antiquitie and slie innouation: with like beneuolence I
trust they will beare with me writing in the vulgar speach and seeking by
my nouelties to satisfie not the schoole but the Court: whereas they know
very well all old things soone waxe stale & lothsome, and the new deuises
are euer dainty and delicate, the vulgar instruction requiring also vulgar
and communicable termes, not clerkly or vncouthe as are all these of the
Greeke and Latine languages primitiuely receiued, vnlesse they be
qualified or by much vse and custome allowed and our eares made acquainted
with them. Thus then I say that _auricular_ figures be those which worke
alteration in th'eare by sound, accent, time, and slipper volubilitie in
vtterance, such as for that respect was called by the auncients
numerositie of speach. And not onely the whole body of a tale in poeme or
historie may be made in such sort pleasant and agreable to the eare, but
also euery clause by it selfe, and euery single word carried in a clause,
may haue their pleasant sweetenesse apart. And so long as this qualitie
extendeth but to the outward tuning of the speech reaching no higher then
th'eare and forcing the mynde little or nothing, it is that vertue which
the Greeks call _Enargia_ and is the office of the _auricular_ figures to
performe. Therefore as the members of language at large are whole
sentence, and sentences are compact of clauses, and clauses of words, and
euery word of letters and sillables, so is the alteration (be it but of a
sillable or letter) much materiall to the sound and sweetenesse of
vtterance. Wherefore beginning first at the smallest alterations which
rest in letters and sillables, the first sort of our figures _auricular_
we do appoint to single words as they lye in language; the second to
clauses of speach; the third to perfit sentences and to the whole masse or
body of the tale be it poeme or historie written or reported.

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