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Henry Edward Crampton - The Doctrine of Evolution

H >> Henry Edward Crampton >> The Doctrine of Evolution




* * * * *

When we take up science and philosophy, or knowledge as a whole, after
religion, it may seem that we have reversed the proper sequence. There are
many reasons for following this course, inasmuch as "knowledge" is the
all-inclusive category of thought; our world is after all a world of
individual consciousness and ideas. In dealing with religion, ethics,
social organization, and human culture, we have been concerned with the
evolution of so many departments of thought and action; and now we are to
develop a final conception of evolution as a universal process in the
progress of all knowledge.

Let us look back over the history of mathematics. The primitive human
individual did not need to count. He dealt with things as he met them, and
he disposed of them singly and individually. A squirrel does not count the
nuts it gathers; it simply accumulates a store, and it perishes or
survives according to its instinctive ability to do this. Just so was
primitive man. The savage, when he organized the first formed tribes,
learned to count the days of a journey and the numbers engaged on opposite
sides in battle. He employed the "score" of his fingers and toes, and our
use of this very word is a survival of such a primitive method of
counting. The abacus of the Roman and Chinese extended the scope of simple
mathematical operations as it employed more symbolic elements. With the
development of Arabic notation capable of indefinite expansion, the
science progressed rapidly, and in the course of long time it has become
the higher calculus of to-day. The conceptions of geometry have likewise
evolved until to-day mathematicians speak of configurated bodies in fourth
and higher dimensions of space, which are beyond the powers of perception,
even though in a sense they exist conceptually. The behavior of
geometrical examples in one dimension leads to the characteristics of
bodies in two dimensions. Upon these facts are constructed the laws of
three-dimensional space which serve to carry mathematical thought to the
remoter conceptual spaces of which we have spoken. It may seem that we are
recording only one phase of mental evolution, but in fact we are dealing
with a larger matter, namely, with the progressive evolution of knowledge
in the Kantian category of number.

Natural science began with the savage's rough classification of the things
with which he dealt in everyday life. As facts accumulated, lifeless
objects were grouped apart from living organisms, and in time two great
divisions of natural science took form. Physics, chemistry, astronomy,
geology, and the like describe the concrete world of matter and energy,
while the biological sciences deal with the structure, development,
interrelationships, and vital activities of animals and plants. Surely
knowledge has evolved with the advance in all of these subjects from
decade to decade and from year to year. And just as surely must evolution
continue, for the world has not stopped developing, and therefore the
great principles of science must undergo further changes, even though they
are the best summaries that can be formulated at the present time.

Philosophy deals with general conceptions of the universe. When we look
back through the ages we find men picturing the world as an aggregate of
diverse and uncorrelated elements--earth, air, fire, and water. The
synthesis of facts and the construction of general principles down through
Bacon, Newton, and Schopenhauer to modern world conceptions results in the
unification of all--"the choir of heaven and furniture of earth." The
lineal descendant of the long line of ancestral philosophies is the monism
which sees no difference between the living and lifeless worlds save that
of varying combinations of ultimate elements which are conceived as
uniform "mind-stuff" everywhere. Whether or not this universal conception
of totality is true, remains for the future to show. For us the important
truth is that here, as in all other departments of knowledge, evolution
proves to be real.

* * * * *

In closing the present description of the basis, nature, and scope of the
doctrine of evolution, I find great difficulty in choosing the right words
for a concise statement of the larger values and results of this
department of science. So much might be said, and yet it is not fitting
for the investigator to preach unduly. The lessons of the doctrine must be
brought home to each individual through personal conviction. But because I
firmly believe in the truth of the statement made in the opening pages,
namely, that science and its results are of practical human value, it is
in a sense my duty as an advocate of evolution to make this plain.

The method of science is justified of its fruits. At the very beginning we
learned how, and how only, sure knowledge can be obtained and how it
differs from a belief which may or may not correspond with the truth.
Based upon facts of smaller or larger groups, scientific laws are so many
summaries of past experience, and they describe in concise conceptual
shorthand the manifold happenings of nature. Their difference from belief
inheres in their ability to serve as guides for everyday and future
experience. This entire volume is a plea for the employment of
common-sense as we look upon and interpret the world in which we have our
places and in which we must play our roles. Our search for truth will be
rewarded in so far as we organize our common-sense observations into clear
conceptions of the laws of nature's order.

The doctrine of evolution enjoins us to learn the rules of the great game
of life which we must play, as science reveals them to us. It is well to
remember that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing, but because
evolution is true always and everywhere, an understanding of its workings
in any department of thought and life clears the vision of other realms of
knowledge and action. Perhaps the greatest lesson is at the same time the
most practical one. It is that, however much we may concern ourselves with
ultimate matters, our immediate duties are here and now, and we cannot
escape them without giving up our right to a place in nature. We are
taught by science that we live under the control of certain fundamental
biological, social, and ethical laws; we might well wish that they were
otherwise, but having recognized them we have no recourse save to obey
them. Evolution as a complete doctrine commands every one to live a life
of service as full as hereditary endowments and surrounding circumstances
will permit. Thus we are taught that the immediate problems of life ought
to concern us more than questions as to the ultimate nature of the
universe and of existence.

Every one can find something worth while in the lessons of evolution,
summarized in the foregoing statements. The atheist, who declines to
personify the ultimate powers of the universe, may, nevertheless, find
direction for his life in the principles brought to light by science. The
agnostic, who doubts the validity of many conventional dicta that may not
seem well grounded, can also find something to believe and to obey.
Finally, the orthodox theist of whatever creed may discover cogent reasons
for many of his beliefs like the Golden Rule previously accepted through
convention; and he must surely welcome the fuller knowledge of their sound
basis in the materials and results of comparative analytical study. To
every one, then, science and evolution offer valuable principles of life,
but great as their service has been, their tasks are not yet completed,
and cannot be completed until the end of all knowledge and of time.




INDEX


Achatinellidae, 103, 104.

Activities, instinctive and reflex, 203, 205, 208;
of familiar animals, 208, 209;
differ from instinct, 209, 210.

Adaptation, universal relation to environment, 15;
principle of, 17;
degenerate forms enlarge our conception of, 50;
results of larval short cuts in development, 71; 109, 213.

Africa, fauna of, 103, 164, 165.

Agassiz, a believer in special creation, 98.

Ages, Palaeozoic, 92;
Mesozoic or Secondary, 93, 94;
Cenozoic or Tertiary, 93;
Coal or Carboniferous, 94.

Albumen, of egg, 60.

Alligators, a diverging branch of lizard, 45.

Amoeba, 21, 51, 69;
comparative study of, 203, 205, 231, 247, 251, 254, 257, 258, 259, 265,
266.

Amphibia, frogs, salamanders, a lower class, 45, 62;
order of evolution of, 63;
evolved from fishes, 64;
most primitive backboned animals, 92; 94, 157;
embryos of, 171; 200.

Anatomy, of mind, 202.

Ant-bears, 42.

Anthropoidea, 160.

Anthropology, 177;
methods and results of, 186;
types of, 186, 187;
comparative, of mind, 211.

Anthropometry, 177.

Ants, communities of, 125;
mental life of, 207, 208;
organizations of, 260, 263, 264.

Apes, 158;
susceptible to training, 210;
line from Amoeba, 231.

Appendix, vermiform, 168.

Apteryx, wingless bird of New Zealand, 44, 200.

Arachnida, 49.

Archaeopteryx, a famous "link," 99.

Ares, 300.

Armadillo, 42.

"Arts of life," 226-230;
dwellings of men, utensils, 227;
history of clothing, 228;
arts of pleasure, 228-230.

Atom, carbon, 22;
nitrogen, 23;
hydrogen, oxygen, 24;
chemical, 25.

Atua, 301.

Azores, animals of, 103.


Bacteria, amazing production of, 123;
relation of, 127.

Baldwin, 148.

Bandicoot, 42.

Barnacles, really crustacea, 50.

Bats, 41, 94.

"Beagle," 102, 117, 136.

Bear, 38, 39.

Bees, mental life of, 207, 208;
nervous system of, 232, 256, 257;
organizations of, 260, 261, 262;
queen, workers, 262, 263.

Beetles, 67.

Bernier, 183.

Bertillon, 183.

Birds, 44;
have they descended from gill-breathing ancestors? 61;
evolution of, 63;
primitive, 99;
embryos of, 171, 200.

Blastula, 68.

Blumenbach, 183.

Bonnet, 70.

Borneo, 164.

Brachiopods, 95.

Brahma, 299, 304.

Brain, 215, 235-240.

Brontosaurus, 94.

Brown-Sequard, 148.

Buddha, 299.

Buffon, 114, 135.

Butterflies, 67, 206, 207, 259.


Carbohydrate, 23, 24.

Carbon, atom, 22; 25, 27.

Carnivora, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40;
order of, 157.

Caterpillar, larva of, 259.

Cats, Manx, Angora, Persian, 37, 39;
domesticated, 137;
intelligence of, 208, 209.

Cattle, products of human selection, 137;
resemblance, 157.

Cebidae, true monkeys, 160, 161, 162.

Cells, 19, 20, 21;
sex, 144;
human, composition of, 156;
of ectoderm and endoderm, 255, 256, 257, 258.

Celts, 218.

Cercopithecidae, 160, 162.

Cerebrum, 215.

Cetacea, 40.

Chemical transformation, 17.

Chick, development of, 60, 61.

Chimpanzee, 163, 164, 195.

Chromatin, 143, 144.

Civilization, a product of evolution, 272.

Classes, 32.

Classification, 32.

Clifford, 238.

Coccyx, 168.

Communities, cell, 258;
insect, 258, 260-264.

Comparative anatomy, 35, 37, 39;
any form will disclose development, 57;
amphibia evolved from fishes, 64;
Law of Recapitulation, 66;
insects arisen from wormlike ancestors, 67;
larvae of insects, 67;
higher animals evolved from two-layered saccular ancestors, 68; 70, 71;
supplements comparative embryology, 72;
appearance of great classes of vertebrates, 94;
proves order of evolution, 163.

Composition, chemical, 15.

Compounds, organic, 29.

Conger-eel, 123, 124, 127.

Consanguinity, essential likeness, 54.

Conscience, 287.

Consciousness, human, 234, 235.

Crabs, 48, 49, 66;
hermit, 66.

Crustacea, lobsters, crabs, 48, 49;
barnacles, 49, 50; 82.

Cuvier, 158, 78;
a believer in special creation, 79.

Curve of error, 120.

Cyclones, 85.

Cyclostomes, 156.


Daphnia, 205.

Darwin, Charles, 80, 100, 102, 115, 116, 117;
Origin of Species, 116, 124, 130, 132, 135;
Erasmus, 135, 136, 138, 142, 143.

Deer, 42;
fossil, of North America, 97, 98.

Development, 54;
a natural process, 56.

De Vries, 145, 146;
his mutation theory, 147, 148.

Dinosaurs, 94.

Distribution, geographical, 32.

Dogs, 38, 39;
embryo of, 66;
varied forms of, 137;
pointer, sheep-dog, instincts of, 208;
intelligence of, 208, 209.

Dubois, 173.

Ducksbill, or Ornithorhynchus, bottom of mammalian scale, 43.

Ducksworth, 184.


Eagle, 44.

Earthquake, 85.

Echidna, bottom of mammalian scale, 43.

Ectoderm, 255.

Egg, of common fowl, 60;
of frog, 68;
nuclei contains factors of development, 71; 144, 145;
human, 231.

Eimer, 148.

Elements, chemical, 15.

Elephant, 41;
place in zooelogical science, 95; 96, 97;
age of, 124.

Embryo, of frog, 58;
of chick, 60-62, 63, 64, 65;
embryos of carnivora, rodents, hoofed animals alike in earlier
development, 65;
of cat, dog, rat, sheep, rabbit, squirrel, cattle, pig, 65;
of skate, shark, hammerhead, 66;
the human, 168, 170, 171;
of birds, reptiles, amphibia, 171;
human hemispheres of brain like adult cat or dog, 215.

Embryology, 32, 33, 34;
of no form fully understood, 57;
general principles of, 57-67;
embryonic agreement, 65;
of insects, 67;
weight of facts of, 69;
comparative, a distinct division of zooelogy, 70, 71; 76, 94, 100;
evidence of, 170;
of mind, 202, 214;
in early stages of human, no nervous system present, 214;
development of, 215.

English sparrow, 123, 127.

Environment, 111, 112;
influences of, 126;
determines mode of life of a race, 213.

Epoch, Glacial, 86;
Silurian and Devonian, rich array of types, 93;
Cenozoic, 96.

Erosion, 89.

Eskimo, picture-writing, 223.

Ethics, 281;
biological, 283;
natural, 284;
evolution of, 285.

Ethnology, 177.

Evolution, the Doctrine of, 1;
is it a science, 3;
the conception of, 8;
organic, 10-12; 31, 32;
evidence of, 54, 95;
of amphibia, 62;
of birds, 63;
of protozoa, 69;
theory of, supported by palaeontology, 76;
cosmic, 84;
biological evidence of, 91;
three important elements of, 109;
adaptation, variation and inheritance, 110;
mechanical, 109;
dynamics of, 109;
second element of, 122;
human, 150-196; 174;
physical, of man, falls into two groups, 153;
of human races, 176;
racial, 177, 178;
mental, 197-240;
human faculty as a product of, 212;
mental as real as physical, 214;
of brain, 214-217;
of art of writing, 223;
method of mental, 231;
social, 241;
of societies of insects, 258;
human, biological interpretation of, 267-274;
of higher human life, 278-311;
of ethics, 285;
final conception of, 307-311.

Factors, primary, secondary, 110;
three kinds, 111;
congenital, 113.

Falls of St. Anthony, 86.

Fishes, lowest among common vertebrates, 46;
trunk-fish, cow-fish, puff-fish, mouse-fish, flounder, 46;
most primitive backboned animals, 92; 94; 157;
embryos of, 171.

Fiske, 139.

Flies, may, 259.

Flounder, a variant of the fish theme, 66.

Fossilization, conditions of, 77-78.

Fossils, 73-105;
remains of, 73;
groups, 77; 78, 79;
order of succession, 91;
oldest rocks devoid of, 92;
forms, 99.

Fowl, game cock, 138;
pigeons, 138.

Frog, 45;
eggs of, larva, development of, 58, 59, 60, 68.


Galapagos Islands, 102, 103, 104.

Galton, 142, 147;
heredity of mental qualities, 232.

Gametes, 252.

Gastrula, 68.

Gemmules, 143.

Genera, 32.

Generation, spontaneous, 78.

Geographical distribution, 32.

Geological agencies, rain, rivers, glaciers, 88;
construction, volcanoes, 88.

Geology, data of, 83, 84.

Germ, Bonnet's idea of, 70;
cells, 144, 146;
plasm, 145, 146.

Gibbon, 163.

Gills, 58, 62.

Gill-slits, bars, clefts, 61, 62, 64;
in embryos of lizards, birds, mammals, 69; 171.

Giraffe, 133.

Glaciers, alterations made by, 87.

Goats, 157.

Gorilla, 163, 165, 195.

Grand Canon of the Colorado, 85, 90.

Gravitation, 155.

Guinea-pigs, Brown-Sequard's, 148.

Gulick, 103.


Haeckel, 63, 71, 184.

Haemoglobin, 22.

Hapalidae, 160.

Harvey, 70.

Hawaiian Islands, 103;
snails of, 104.

Heredity, 142;
a real human process, 175;
instinct determined by, 206;
Anglo-Saxon, 213;
of mental qualities, 232.

Heron, 44.

Hesperornis, 99.

Hippopotamus, 42.

Hominidae, 160.

Homo sapiens, 183.

Hoofed animals, 95, 96, 97.

Hornets, communities of, larvae of, 260.

Horse, 41, 42, 65;
place of in zooelogical science, 95, 96;
development of, 97;
perfection of one type of, 136, 157; 167;
intelligence of, 209.

House-fly, eggs of, 67.

Human faculty, 212;
its three constituents, 212.

Huxley, 6, 26, 30, 63, 184.

Hydra, 50, 51, 52, 53, 68, 69;
comparative study of, 204, 205, 206; 254;
cells of, 255; 256, 257, 258, 261, 262, 263, 265, 266.

Hydrogen, 25, 27.

Hyracotherium, 96.


Ichthyornis, 99.

Ichthyosaurus, 94.

Indians, American, pictography of, 223, 224;
of Brazil, 227;
life of, 272.

Individual development, a resume of history of species, 63.

Inertia, 155.

Infant, human, activities of, 216.

Ingestive structures, 17.

Inheritance, 110, 131;
biological laws of, 142;
paternal and maternal basis of, 144; 145;
Mendelian phenomena of, 146;
Galton's Law of, 147;
laws of, in mental phenomena, 203;
strength of, in mental traits, 232;
physical, provides mechanism of intellect, 233.

Insects, butterflies, beetles, bees, grasshoppers, spiders, scorpions, 49;
66;
eggs of common house-fly, 67; 82;
nervous mechanism of, 205;
communities of, 207, 258-260, 267;
nervous system of, 256, 257.

Instinct, determined by heredity, 206;
of higher animals, 208;
differs from intelligence in degree, 210.

Intelligence, 203;
in mental life of communal insects, 207.

Invertebrates, lower animals devoid of backbone, 47;
structural plan, 48;
branches of, 49;
groups, two layer animals, 50;
hydra, sea-anemones, soft-polyps, 50;
more complicated, 68;
palaeontological materials, 82;
evolution of lowest members, 92.


Jaguar, 101.

Jastrow, 294.

Java, 173.

Jellyfish, 81.

Jordan, David Starr, 123.


Kangaroo, 42.

Keane, 185.


Lamarck, 115, 133, 135.

Lampreys, 156.

Language, most important single possession of mankind, 218.

Laplace, 29.

Larvae, of lobster, 66;
of insects, 67;
of ground wasp, 207;
of caterpillar, 259;
of wasps, 260.

Lavoisier, 29.

Law of Recapitulation, 66;
stated by Von Baer and Haeckel, 71.

Lemurs, 158, 160, 161, 195.

Life, what is it? 27.

Limestone, 89, 90.

Links, 99.

Linnaeus, 79, 158, 183.

Lions, 101;
environment of, 112.

Lizard, nearest form to remote ancestor, 45.

Lobsters, 66;
larvae of, 66.

Lyell, 80, 107, 135, 136.


MacDougal, 148.

Madagascar, 161.

Mallock, 295.

Malthus, 136.

Mammalia,
lower orders of, 42;
their own mode of growing up, 64;
embryos of, 64; 97;
members of class differ, 157, 158; 200;
order of mentality, 203.

Mammals, 40, 43, 157;
embryo of, 171.

Mammoth, 97.

Marmosets, 161.

Marquesas, 103.

Marsupials, 104.

Mastodon, 97.

Mechanism,
organic, 14;
living, 110.

Melanesia, 103.

Mendel, Gregor, 145;
his law, 146; 147, 148.

Mentality, human, 233.

Metazoa, 254.

Mice, 41, 134;
field, 139.

Miller, 293.

Mind,
anatomy of, 202;
human, differs only in degree, 203; 210, 211;
embryology of, 214;
palaeontology of, 217;
and matter inseparable, 234-237.

Missing links, 77.

Moeritherium, a significant fossil, 97.

Molecule, protein, 22, 23, 24.

Mollusks, 81, 82;
connecting widely separated ages, 95.

Monkeys, 158.

Morgan, Lloyd, 148.

Morphology, 32.

Moths, 67.

Mueller, 293.

Mutation theory, 146.


Naegeli, 143, 148.

Natural Selection,
doctrine of, 116, 117, 118;
the struggle for existence, 124, 125;
simply trial and error, 131;
Darwin recognized it as incomplete, 142;
germ-plasm theory supplements, 145.

Nebula, gaseous, 84.

Nervous systems, 201, 202, 205, 206, 211;
of worker-bee, 232.

Niagara, 85, 86, 89.


Ontogeny, recapitulates phylogeny, 63.

Orang-outang, 163, 164.

Orders, 32.

Organic, 15;
systems, 17;
transformation, analogies of, 43,
a real and natural process, 55, 56, 76;
mechanism, alteration of, 55.

Organisms,
living, 14;
analysis of, 16; 17, 18, 19, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32;
characteristic early stages, 55;
are they adapted by circumstances? 109;
environment, 111;
physical heritage of, 113;
variation of, 119;
difference, 121;
universal conflict of, 127;
change, 130;
human, 32, 156, 159, 165-171;
nervous system of, 201;
psychical characteristics of, 202;
many-celled, 257.

Organs, 16, 17, 28;
of human body, 156.

Origin of Species, 136, 149.

Origination of new parts, 109.

Osborn, 148.

Ostrich, 44.

Over production, 122-124, 129.

Owls, horned, of Arizona, 45; 139.


Palaeontology, 32, 34, 73, 74, 76;
evidence of, not complete, 80, 81;
table of facts of, 91; 94;
second division of evidence, 95;
does it throw light on antiquity of man? 155;
of mind, 202, 203, 217.

Paludina, 95.

Partulae, 103.

Pearson, Karl, 6, 7, 142, 147;
heredity of mental qualities, 232.

Penguin, a counterpart of the seal, 44.

Peoples,
fusion of, 178, 179;
Mexicans, 178, 181;
Anglo-Saxon, 179;
American, 179;
Indians, 181, 183, 185, 191, 192;
Patagonian, 180, 192;
Polynesian, 181, 182, 187;
Moor, 181;
Zulu, 181, 183;
Malay, 181, 183, 190;
Mongolian, 181, 186-190;
Papuan, 182;
Negro, African, Ethiopian, 182, 183, 192-195;
Caucasian, 182, 185-189, 195;
Veddahs, 182, 188;
European, 183;
Asiatic, 183;
Laplander, 183, 190;
Scandinavian types,
Norwegians, Swedes, Danes, Germans--north and south--186, 187;
types of, 186-196;
Persians, 186,
eastern, 187;
Afghans, Hindus, 186;
Welsh, French, Swiss, 187;
Russians, 187-190;
Poles, Armenians, 187;
Mediterranean type,
Spaniard, Italian, Greek, Arab, 187;
subordinate group,
Semitic, Arab, Hebrew, 187;
North African, Berber, Hamites, 187;
relatives of the Mediterranean,
Dravidas, Todas, Veddahs, Ainus, 188;
Manchurian, Chukchi, Buryats, Yukaghir, 189;
Finlander, Bulgar, Magyar, Korean, Japanese, Gurkhas, Burmans, Annams,
Cochin Chinese, Tagals, Bisayans, Hovars, 190;
Pueblos, Eskimos, Aztecs, Mayas, Caribs, 191;
Yahgan, Alacaluf, 191;
Papuan, Australian, 193;
Negrito section,
Adamans, Kalangs, Sakais AEtas, Bushmen, Hottentots, Akkas, 194.

Periods,
Triassic, Jurassic, 94;
Eocene, Miocene, 96.

Phenacodus, 96.

Phyla, 32.

Phylogeny, 63.

Pictography, 223-226;
of Eskimos, of American Indians, 223, 224;
of Asia, 224;
of Egypt, 224, 225.

Pig, 42, 157.

Pithecanthropus, 174.

Plesiosaurus, 94.

Polynesia, 103, 104.

Pouched animals, kangaroo, opossums, 42.

Primates, name given by Linnaeus, 158;
eutheria, 158, 159;
order of, 160;
anthropoids, 161;
arrangement of organs, 201.

Processes, psychological, of higher animals, 208, 209.

Prosimii, 160.

Proteins, 22, 23, 24.

Protoplasm, 22-30;
the physical basis of life, 143; 144;
human, 156;
chemicals that make up, 156.

Protozoa, 52, 53, 68, 70;
relations of, 126.

Protozooen, 251.

Psychology,
comparative, 198;
principle of, 199;
descriptive, genetic, 202;
terms of, 203;
human, 210, 211.

Pseudopodia, 52.

Puma, 101.

Pupa, 259.

Pygmy, 195, 196, 227.


Rabbits, 41, 101;
domesticated, 137;
introduced into Australia, 140.

Races, human,
age of, 178;
divisions of, 183-195;
character of:
status, variations of, 180, 181;
color, a criterion of racial relationship, 181, 184;
hair, character of, as means of classification, 181, 182;
cranium, shape of, as means of identification, nose, jaws, 182.

Racoon, 38.

Rats, 41, 134.

Reason, 203;
in mental life of communal insects, 207.

Religions, 288;
Christian, Hebrew, Buddhistic, Tangaroan, 289, 290;
Mohammedan, 290, 298;
Dervish, Mahdist, 293;
linguistic basis of, 293, 294;
of savagery, 294, 300, 301;
barbarism, civilization, 294;
elements of, 295;
forms of Christianity, 296;
sects,
Judaism, 297, 298;
Brahmanism, Buddhism, 298, 299;
Polytheism, Roman, 300.

Reptiles, variations about a central theme, 45;
lizard, typical, 46; 157;
embryos of, 171; 200.

Retention of better invention, 109.

Rhinoceros, 41.

Rivers,
Mississippi, 86, 89;
Hoang-ho, Ganges, Thames, 87;
alterations made by, 87.

Rocks, crystalline or plutonic:
sedimentary, 85;
eruptive, 88;
new, 59;
of Grand Canon, 90;
testimony of, establishes evolution, 100.


Salamanders, 45, 46.

Salts, of sodium, chlorine, magnesium, potassium, 24.

Samoan Islands, 103.

Sandstone, 90.

Science, what is it? 5, 6;
physiological, 14.

Sea anemones, 68.

Sea elephant, 38.

Seals, 38, 39, 40, 209.

Selection,
natural, doctrine of, 116, 117, 118;
struggle for existence, 124, 125;
simply trial and error, 131, 136,
artificial, 136, 137, 138;
laws of, in mental phenomena, 203.

Sequence, physiological, in training animals, 209; 210.

Series,
sedimentary, 84, 90, 92;
crystalline or plutonic, 85;
Azoic or Archaean, age of, 92.

Shale, 89.

Shark,
common, most fundamental form, 46;
embryo of, hammerhead;
embryos of, 66.

Sheep, 157.

Simiidae, 160, 163.

Skate, embryos of, 66.

Snails, 45;
shells of, 95;
land snails, 103;
Hawaiian and Polynesian, 104.

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