Julian S. Corbett - Fighting Instructions, 1530 1816

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This is confirmed by two manuscript authorities which have fortunately
survived, and which give us a clear insight into the new system as it
was actually set on foot. The first is a MS. copy of some Additional
Instructions in the Admiralty Library. They are less full and clearly
earlier than those used by Boscawen in 1759, and are bound up with a
printed copy of the regular Fighting Instructions already referred to,
which contain in manuscript the additions made by Mathews during his
Mediterranean command.[2] In so far as they differ from Boscawen's
they will be found below as notes to his set.

The second is a highly interesting MS. copy of a signal book dated
1756, in which the above instructions are referred to. It is in the
United Service Institution (_Register No._ 234). At the end it
contains a memorandum of a new article by which Hawke modified the
established method of attack, and for the first time introduced the
principle of each ship steering for her opposite in the enemy's
line. It is printed below, and as will be seen was to be substituted
for 'Articles V. and VI. of the Additional Fighting Instructions by
Day' then in force, which correspond to Articles XV. and XVI. of
Boscawen's set. It does not appear in the Boscawen set, and how soon
it was regularly incorporated we do not know. No reference has been
found to it till that by Rodney, in his despatch of April 1780
referred to below.

Of even higher interest for our purpose is another entry in the same
place of an article also issued by Hawke for forming 'line of
bearing.' Here again the older form of the Additional Fighting
Instructions is referred to, and the new article is to be inserted
after Article IV., which was for forming the line ahead or
abreast. The important point however is that the new article is
expressly attributed to Lord Anson. Now it is known that when Anson in
April 1747 was cruising off Finisterre for De la Jonquiere he kept
his fleet continually exercising 'in forming line and in manoeuvres of
battle till then absolutely unknown.'[3]

The 'line of bearing' or 'quarter line' must have been one of these,
and we therefore reach two important conclusions: (1) that this great
tactical advance was introduced by Anson during the War of the
Austrian Succession, and (2) that the older set of Additional Fighting
Instructions was then in existence. Another improvement probably
assignable to this time was Article IV. (of Boscawen's set) for battle
order in two separate lines. Articles V., VI., VII., for extended
cruising formations certainly were then issued, for in his despatch
after his defeat of De la Jonquiere Anson says: 'At daybreak I made
the signal for the fleet to spread in a line abreast, each ship
keeping at the distance of a mile from the other [Article V.] that
there might not remain the least probability for the enemy to pass by
us undiscovered.'[4]

Then we have the notable Article XVIII., not in the earlier sets,
enjoining captains to pursue any ship they force out of the line,
regardless of the contrary order contained in Article XXI. of the
regular Fighting Instructions. We have seen the point discussed
already in the anonymous commentary on the Duke of York's final
instructions, and it remained a bone of contention till the end. Men
like Sir Charles H. Knowles were as strongly in favour of immediately
following a beaten adversary as the anonymous commentator was in
favour of maintaining the line. Knowles's idea was that it was folly
to check the ardour of a ship's company at the moment of victory, and
he tells us he tried to persuade Howe to discard the old instruction
when he was drawing up his new ones.[5]

As to the further tactical progress which the Boscawen instructions
disclose, and which nearly all appear closely related to the events of
the War of the Austrian Succession, when Anson was supreme, we may
particularly note Article I., for equalising the lines and using
superfluous ships to form a reserve; Article III. for closer action;
Article VIII. for the reserve to endeavour to 'Cross the T,' instead
of doubling; and Articles IX. and X. for bringing a flying enemy to
action.

With these internal inferences to corroborate the direct evidence of
our documents the conclusion is clear--that during the War of the
Austrian Succession the new system initiated by Vernon was developed
by Anson as a consequence of Mathews's miserable action off Toulon in
1744, and that its first fruits were gathered in the brilliant
successes of Hawke and Anson himself in 1747.

Though no complete set later than those used by Boscawen is known to
exist, we may be certain from various indications that they continued
to be issued as affording a means of giving elasticity to tactics, and
that they were constantly issued in changing form. Thus Rodney, in his
report after the action off Martinique in April 1780, says, 'I made
the signal for every ship to bear down and steer for her opposite in
the enemy's line, agreeable to the twenty-first article of the
Additional Instructions.' Again in a MS. signal book in the Admiralty
Library, which was used in Rodney's great action of April 12, 1782,
and drawn up by an officer who was present, a similar article is
referred to. But there it appears as No. XVII. of the Additional
Instructions, and its effect is given in a form which closely
resembles the original article of Hawke:--'When in a line of battle
ahead and to windward of the enemy, to alter the course to lead down
to them; whereupon every ship is to steer for the ship of the enemy,
which from the disposition of the two squadrons it may be her lot to
engage, notwithstanding the signal for the line ahead will be kept
flying.' It is clear, therefore, that between 1780 and 1782 Rodney or
the admiralty had issued a new set of 'Additional Instructions.' The
amended article was obviously designed to prevent a recurrence of the
mistake that spoiled the action of 1780. In the same volume is a
signal which carries the idea further. It has been entered
subsequently to the rest, having been issued by Lord Hood for the
detached squadron he commanded in March 1783. There is no reference
to a corresponding instruction, but it is 'for ships to steer for
(independent of each other) and engage respectively the ships opposed
to them.' In Lord Howe's second signal book, issued in 1790,[6] the
signal reappears in MS. as 'each ship of the fleet to steer for,
independently of each other, and engage respectively the ship opposed
in situation to them in the enemy's line.' And in this case there is
a reference to an 'Additional Instruction, No. 8,' indicating that
Hood, who had meanwhile become first sea lord, had incorporated his
idea into the regular 'Additional Fighting Instructions.'

Take, again, the case of the manoeuvre of 'breaking the line' in line
ahead. This was first practised after its long abandonment by a sudden
inspiration in Rodney's action of April 12, 1782. In the MS. signal
book as used by Rodney in that year there is no corresponding signal
or instruction. But it does contain one by Hood which he must have
added soon after the battle. It is as follows:--

'When fetching up with the enemy to leeward and on the contrary tack
to break through their line and endeavour to cut off part of their van
or rear.' It also contains another attributed to Admiral Pigot which
he probably added at Hood's suggestion when he succeeded to the
command in July 1782. It is for a particular ship 'to cut through the
enemy's line of battle, and for all the other ships to follow her in
close order to support each other.' But in both cases there is no
corresponding instruction, so that the new signals must have been
based on 'expeditional' orders issued by Pigot and Hood. The same
book has yet another additional signal 'for the leading ship to cut
through the enemy's line of battle,' apparently the latest of the
three, but not specifically attributed either to Pigot or Hood.

With the Additional Instructions used by Rodney the system culminated.
For officers with any real feeling for tactics its work was adequate.
The criticisms of Hood and Rodney on Graves's heart-breaking action
off the Chesapeake in 1781 show this clearly enough. 'When the enemy's
van was out,' wrote Hood, 'it was greatly extended beyond the centre
and rear, and might have been attacked with the whole force of the
British fleet.' And again, 'Had the centre gone to the support of the
van and the signal for the line been hauled down ... the van of the
enemy must have been cut to pieces and the rear division of the
British fleet would have been opposed to ... the centre division.'
Here, besides the vital principle of concentration, we have a germ
even of the idea of containing, and Rodney is equally emphatic. 'His
mode of fighting I will never follow. He tells me that his line did
not extend so far as the enemy's rear. I should have been sorry if it
had, and a general battle ensued. It would have given the advantage
they wished and brought their whole twenty-four ships of the line
against the English nineteen, whereas by watching his opportunity
... by contracting his own line he might have brought his nineteen
against the enemy's fourteen or fifteen, and by a close action have
disabled them before they could have received succour from the
remainder.'[7]

Read with such remarks as these the latest Additional Fighting
Instructions will reveal to us how ripe and sound a system of tactics
had been reached. The idea of crushing part of the enemy by
concentration had replaced the primitive intention of crowding him
into a confusion; a swift and vigorous attack had replaced the
watchful defensive, and above all the true method of concentration had
been established; for although a concentration on the van was still
permissible in exceptional circumstances, the chief of the new
articles are devoted to concentrating on the rear. Thus our tacticians
had worked out the fundamental principles on which Nelson's system
rested, even to breaking up the line into two divisions. 'Containing'
alone was not yet clearly enunciated, but by Hood's signals for
breaking the line, the best method of effecting it was made
possible. Everything indeed lay ready for the hands of Howe and Nelson
to strike into life.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Admiral Sir John Norris had been commander-in-chief in the
Mediterranean 1710-1, in the Baltic 1715-21 and 1727, in the Downs in
1734, and the Channel 1739 and following years. Professor Laughton tells
me that Norris's papers and orders for 1720-1 contain no such signals.
He must therefore have issued them later.

[2] Catalogue, 252/24. The reason this interesting set has been
overlooked is that the volume in which they are bound bears by error the
label 'Sailing and Fighting Instructions for H.M. Fleet, 1670. Record
Office Copy.' The Instructions of 1670 were of course quite different.

[3] _Dict. Nat. Biog._ vol. ii. p. 33.

[4] Barrow, _Life of Anson_, p. 162

[5] _Observations on Naval Tactics, &c._, p. 27.

[6] In the Admiralty Library. It is undated, but assigned to 1792-3.
For the reasons for identifying it as Howe's second code see _post_, pp.
234-7. In his first code Howe adopted Hood's wording almost exactly; see
_post_, p. 236.

[7] _Letters of Sir Samuel Hood_, p. 46; and cf. _post_, p. 228 _n._

_ADMIRAL VERNON, circa_ 1740.

[+Mathews-Lestock Pamphlets+.[1]]

_An Additional Instruction to be added to the Fighting
Instructions_.

In case of meeting any squadron of the enemy's ships, whose number may
be less than those of the squadron of his majesty's ships under my
command, and that I would have any of the smaller ships quit the line,
I will in such case make the signal for speaking with the captain of
that ship I would have quit the line; and at the same time I will put
a flag, striped yellow and white, at the flagstaff at the main
topmast-head, upon which the said ship or ships are to quit the line
and the next ships are to close the line, for having our ships of
greatest force to form a line just equal to the enemy's. And as, upon
the squadrons engaging, it is not to be expected that the ships
withdrawn out of the line can see or distinguish signals at such a
juncture, it is therefore strictly enjoined and required of such
captain or captains, who shall have their signal or signals made to
withdraw out of the line, to demean themselves as a _corps de
reserve_ to the main squadron, and to place themselves in the
best situation for giving relief to any ship of the squadron that may
be disabled or hardest pressed by the enemy, having in the first place
regard to the ship I shall have my flag on board, as where the honour
of his majesty's flag is principally concerned. And as it is morally
impossible to fix any general rule to occurrences that must be
regulated from the weather and the enemy's disposition, this is left
to the respective captain's judgment that shall be ordered out of the
line to govern himself by as becomes an officer of prudence, and as he
will answer the contrary at his peril.

_Memorandum_.--That whereas all signals for the respective
captains of the squadron are at some one of the mast-heads, and as
when we are in line of battle or in other situations it may be
difficult for the ships to distinguish their signal, in such case you
are to take notice that your signal will be made by fixing the pennant
higher upon the topgallant shrouds, so as it may be most conspicuous
to be seen by the respective ship it is made for.

_A second Additional Instruction to the Fighting Instructions_.

If, at any time after our ships being engaged with any squadron of the
enemy's ships, the admiral shall judge it proper to come to a closer
engagement with the enemy than at the distance we first began to
engage, the admiral will hoist a union flag at the main topmast-head
and fire a gun on the opposite side to which he is engaged with the
enemy, when every ship is to obey the signal, taking the distance from
the centre; and if the admiral would have any particular ship do so he
will make the same signal with the signal for the captain of that
ship.

And in case of being to leeward of the enemy, the admiral will at the
same time he makes this signal hoist the yellow flag at the fore
topmast-head for filling and making sail to windward.

And during the time of engagement, every ship is to appoint a proper
person to keep an eye upon the admiral and to observe signals.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] 'A Narrative of the Proceedings of his Majesty's Fleet in the
Mediterranean, &c. By a Sea Officer' London, 1744, pp. 111-2

_LORD ANSON, circa_ 1747_.

[+MS. Signal Book, 1756, United Service Institution+.]

_Lord Anson's Additional Fighting Instruction, to be inserted after
Article the 4th in the Additional Fighting Instructions by Day_.

Whereas it may often be necessary for ships in line of battle, to
regulate themselves by bearing on some particular point of the compass
from each other without having any regard to their bearing abreast or
ahead of one another;

You are therefore hereby required and directed to strictly observe the
following instructions:

When the signal is made for the squadron to draw into a line of battle
at any particular distance, and I would have them keep north and south
of each other, I will hoist a red flag with a white cross in the mizen
topmast shrouds to show the quarter of the compass, and for the
intermediate points I will hoist on the flagstaff at the mizen
top-mast-head, when they are to bear

N by E and S by W, one common pennant
NNE " SSW, two common pennants
NE by N " SW by S, three " "
NE " SW, a Dutch jack.

And I will hoist under the Dutch jack when I would have them bear

NE by E and SW by W, one common pennant
ENE " WSW, two common pennants
E by N " W by S, three " "
and fire a gun with each signal.

When I would have them bear from each other on any of the points on
the NW and SE quarters I will hoist a blue and white flag on the mizen
topmast shrouds, to show the quarter of the compass and distinguish
the intermediate points they are to form on from the N and S in the
same manner as in the NE and SW quarter.[1]

ED. HAWKE.
FOOTNOTE:

[1] From this article it would appear that the correct expression for
'line of bearing' is 'quarter line'--_i.e._ a line formed in a quarter
of the compass, and that 'bow and quarter line' is due to false
etymology. Though Hawke approved the formation, it does not appear in
the Additional Instructions used by Boscawen in 1759. It was however
regularly incorporated in those used in the War of American
Independence. See _post_, p. 225, Art. III.

_SIR EDWARD HAWKE_, 1756.

[+MS. Signal Book, United Service Institution+.]

_Memorandum_,

In room of Articles V. and VI. of the 'Additional Fighting
Instructions by Day'[1] it is in my discretion that this be
observed, viz.:

When sailing in a line of battle, one ship ahead of another, and I
would have the ship that leads with either the starboard or larboard
tacks aboard to alter her course in order to lead down to the enemy, I
will hoist a Dutch jack under my flag at the mizen topmast-head and
fire two guns. Then every ship of the squadron is to steer for the
ship of the enemy that from the disposition of the two squadrons must
be her lot to engage, notwithstanding I shall keep the signal for the
line ahead flying, making or shortening sail in such proportion as to
preserve the distance assigned by the signal for the line, in order
that the whole squadron as soon as possible may come to action at the
same time.[2]

ED. HAWKE.

_Additional Signals_.

If upon seeing an enemy I should think it necessary to alter the
disposition of the ships in the line of battle, and would have any
ships change station with each other, I will make the signal to speak
with the captains of such ships, and hoist the flag chequered red and
blue on the flagstaff at the mizen topmast-head.[3]

FOOTNOTES:

[1] _I.e._ the older set. They were Articles XV. and XVI. of the
remodelled set used by Boscawen in 1759.

[2] This article was presumably issued by Hawke when in July 1756 he
superseded Byng in the Mediterranean. It seems designed to prevent a
recurrence of the errors which lost the battle of Minorca, where the
British van was crushed by coming into action long before the centre and
rear. It is not in the Additional Instructions of 1759, but reappears in
a modified form in those of 1780.

[3] This article is entered in the same signal book, but has no
signature. It may therefore have been one of Anson's innovations.

_ADMIRAL BOSCAWEN_, 1759.[1]

[+From the original in the Admiralty Library, 252/29+.]

I. In case of meeting with a squadron of the enemy's ships that may be
less in number than the squadron under my command, if I would have any
of the smaller ships quit the line, that those of the greatest force
may be opposed to the enemy, I will put abroad the signal for speaking
with the captains of such ships as I would have leave the line, and
hoist a flag, striped yellow and white, at the flagstaff at the main
topmast-head; then the next ships are to close the line, and those
that have quitted it are to hold themselves in readiness to assist any
ship that may be disabled, or hard pressed, or to take her station, if
she is obliged to go out of the line: in which case, the strongest
ship that is withdrawn from the line is strictly enjoined to supply
her place, and fill up the vacancy.

II. And in case of meeting with any squadron, or ships of war of the
enemy that have merchant-men under their convoy, though the signal for
the line of battle should be out, if I would have any of the frigates
that are out of the line, or any ship of the line fall upon the
convoy, whilst the others are engaged, I will put abroad the pennant
for speaking with the captain of such ship or ships, and hoist the
flag above mentioned for quitting the line, with a pennant under it;
upon which signal, such ship or ships are to use their utmost
endeavours to take or destroy the enemy.

III. If at any time while we are engaged with the enemy, the admiral
shall judge it proper to come to a closer engagement than at the
distance we then are, he will hoist a red and white flag on the
flagstaff at the main topmast-head, and fire a gun. Then every ship
is to engage the enemy at the same distance the admiral does; and if
the admiral would have any particular ship do so, he will make the
same signal, and the signal for speaking with the captain.

IV.[2] When I would have the two divisions of the fleet form
themselves into a separate line of battle, one ship ahead of another
at the distance of a cable's length asunder, and each division to be
abreast of the other, when formed at the distance of one cable's
length and a half, I will hoist a flag chequered blue and yellow at
the mizen peak, and fire a gun, and then every ship is to get into her
station accordingly,

*V.[3] When I would have the fleet spread in a line abreast, each
ship keeping at the distance of one mile from the other, I will hoist
a flag chequered blue and yellow, on the flagstaff at the mizen
top-mast-head, and fire a gun.

*VI. When I would have the ships spread in a line directly ahead of
each other, and keep at the distance of a mile asunder, I will hoist a
flag chequered red and white at the mizen peak, and fire a gun.

*VII. And when the signal is made for the ships to spread either
abreast or ahead of one another, and I would have them keep at the
distance of two miles asunder, I will hoist a pennant under the
fore-mentioned flags: then every ship is to make sail, and get into
her station accordingly.

VIII. If I should meet with a squadron of the enemy's ships of war
inferior in number to the ships under my command, those ships of my
squadron (above the number of the enemy) that happen to fall in either
ahead of the enemy's van or astern of his rear, while the rest of the
ships are engaged, are hereby required, and directed to quit the line
without waiting for the signal, and to distress the enemy by raking
the ships in the van and rear, notwithstanding the first part of the
twenty-fourth article of the Fighting Instructions to the contrary.

IX. And if I should chase with the whole squadron, and would have a
certain number of the ships that are nearest the enemy draw into a
line of battle ahead of me, in order to engage till the rest of the
ships of the squadron can come up with them, I will hoist a white flag
with a red cross on the flagstaff at the main topmast-head, and fire
the number of guns as follows:--

When I would have five ships draw into a line of battle, ahead of each
other, I will fire one gun.

When I would have seven ships draw into a line of battle, ahead of
each other, I will fire three guns.

X. Then those ships are immediately to form the line without any
regard to seniority or the general form delivered, but according to
their distances from the enemy, viz., The headmost and nearest ship to
the enemy is to lead, and the sternmost to bring up the rear, that no
time may be lost in the pursuit; and all the rest of the ships are to
form and strengthen that line, as soon as they can come up with them,
without any regard to my general form of the order of battle.

XI. Whereas every ship is directed (when sailing in a line of battle)
to keep the same distances those ships do who are nearest the admiral,
always taking it from the centre: if at any time I think the ship
ahead of me is [at] too great a distance, I will make it known to him
by putting abroad a pennant at the jib-boom end, and keep it flying
till he is in his proper station: and if he finds the ship ahead of
him is at a greater distance from him than he is from the
[4]-----(or such ship as my flag shall be flying on board of), he
shall make the same signal at his jib-boom end, and keep it flying
till he thinks that ship is at a proper distance, and so on to the van
of the line.

XII. And when I think the ship astern of me is at too great a
distance, I will make it known to him by putting abroad a pennant at
the cross-jack yard-arm, and keep it flying till he is in his station:
and if he finds the ship astern of him is at a greater distance than
he is from the ---- (or such ship as my flag shall be flying aboard
of) he shall make the same signal at the cross-jack yard-arm, and keep
it flying till he thinks that the ship is at a proper distance, and so
on to the rear of the line.

XIII. And if at any time the captain of any particular ship in the
line thinks the ship without him is at a greater distance than those
ships who are next the centre, he shall make the above signal: and
then that ship is immediately to close, and get into his proper
station.

XIV.[5] When the signal is made for the squadron to draw into a line
of battle, one ship ahead of another, by hoisting a union flag at the
mizen peak and firing a gun, every ship is to make all the sail he can
into his station, and keep at the distance of half a cable's length
from each other: If I would have them to be a cable's length asunder,
I will hoist a blue flag, with a red cross under the union flag at the
mizen peak and fire a gun: and if two cables' length asunder, a white
and blue flag under the union flag at the mizen peak, and fire a gun:
but when I would have the squadron draw into a line of battle, one
ship abreast of another, and keep at those distances as above
directed, I will hoist a pennant under the said flags at the mizen
peak.

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