L. M. Gilbreth - The Psychology of Management

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ATTENTION ALLOWED TO LAPSE AND THEN RECALLED.--Standardization
shifts the objects of attention and eliminates the need for constant
concentration. The standardization of processes relieves the worker
to a marked extent from the extremely fatiguing mental effort of
unproductive fixed, valueless, and unnecessary attention on the
stream of consciousness. The repeated elements which form a part
of all standards reconcentrates the attention if it is allowed
to lapse.

STANDARDIZATION ELIMINATES THE SHIFTING VIEWPOINT.--Under
old-time Traditional Management the way that the man happened to
feel at the particular time made a great difference, not only in his
work, but in his relations with other men. The standardization not
only of the relationship between the men, but of the relationships
between the foreman, the manager, and the worker, the fact that the
disciplining is put in the hands of a man who is not biased by his
personal feelings in his dealings with the men;--all of these things
mean that the viewpoint of the men as to their work and their
relationship remains fixed. This standardizing of the viewpoint is
an enormous help toward increasing output.

THE COMMON VIEWPOINT IS AN IMPETUS.--There are those who believe
that the concerted standard process of thought of the many minds
assists the operation of any one mind. However this may be, there is
no doubt that the fact that the standard thought is present in all
minds at one time at least eliminates some cause for discussion and
leads to unity and consequent success in the work.

INVENTION IS STIMULATED.--Chances for invention and construction
are provided by standardization.[14] By having a scientifically
derived standard method as a starter, the worker can exert much of
his mental power toward improvement from that point upward, instead
of being occupied with methods below it and in wasting, perhaps, a
lifetime in striving to get up to it,[15] this in distinction to the
old plan, where a worker knew only what he could personally remember
of what had been handed down by tradition, tradition being the
memory of society. Under Scientific Management a worker has many
repetitions of experience, some of which he does not always
recognize as such. When he does recognize them, he has the power and
daring for rapid construction that come to those only who "know that
they know."

Standardization of ultimate subdivisions, as such, brings that
power to the worker sooner. The conscious knowledge of familiarity
of process is an essential for attaining the complete benefits of
experience.

Far from making machines out of the men, standardization causes
a mental state that leads to invention, for the reason that the
worker's brain is in most intimate contact with the work, and yet
has not been unnecessarily fatigued by the work itself. No more
monotonous work could be cited than that of that boy whose sole duty
was to operate by hand the valve to the engine, yet he invented the
automatic control of the slide valve used throughout the world
to-day.

STANDARDIZATION PREVENTS ACCIDENTS.--The results of
standardization so far given, concern changes in the worker's mental
capacity, or attitude. Such changes, and other changes, will be
discussed from a different viewpoint under "Teaching." As for
results to the worker's body, one of the most important is the
elimination of causes for accidents.

The rigid inspection, testing, and repairing provided for by
Scientific Management provides against accidents from defects in
equipment, tools, or material. The fact that instructions are
written, provides against wrong methods of handling work.[16] The
concentrated attention caused by standardization, is a safeguard
against accidents that occur from the worker's carelessness.[17] The
proper allowance of rest for overcoming fatigue, insures that the
worker's mind is fresh enough to enable him to comply with
standards, and, finally, the spirit of cooeperation that underlies
Scientific Management is an added check against accidents, in that
everyone is guarding his fellows as well as himself.

PROGRESS OF STANDARDIZATION ASSURED.--As Scientific Management
becomes older, progress will be faster, because up to this time
there has been a hindrance standing in the way of rapid advancement
of the best standards. This hindrance has been the tendency of
habits of thought coinciding with former practice. For example, the
design of concrete building for years followed the habit of thinking
in terms of brick, or wood, or steel, and then attempting to design
and construct in reinforced concrete. Again, in the case of the
motor car, habits of thinking in vehicles drawn by animals for years
kept the design unnecessarily leaning toward that of horse vehicles.
As soon as thought was in terms of power vehicles, the efficient
motor truck of to-day was made, using the power also for power
loading and power hoisting, as is now done in motor trucks specially
designed for transporting and handling pianos and safes. So, also,
while the thought was of traditional practice, standard practice was
held back. Now that the theories of standardization are well
understood, standardization and standards in general can advance
with great rapidity.

CHAPTER VI FOOTNOTES: ==============================================

1. Compare R.T. Dana and W.L. Sanders, _Rock Drilling_, chap. XVI.
2. The idea of perfection is not involved in the standard of
Scientific Management. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5,
of _The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching_,
p. 6.
3. _Cost of Manufactures_.
4. Sully, _The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology_, pp. 290-292.
5. C.B. Going, _Methods of the Sante Fe_, p. 66.
6. For desirability of standard signals see R.T. Dana, _Handbook of
Steam Shovel Work_, p. 32.
7. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, pp. 268-269.
8. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management,_ para. 285, Harper Ed.,
pp. 123-124.
9. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management,_ revised 1911, pp. 124-125.
10. F.W. Taylor, _On the Art of Cutting Metals_, A.S.M.E., No. 1119.
11. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 11.
12. Mary Whiton Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, p. 65.
13. C.G. Barth, A.S.M.E., Vol. 25, Paper 1010, p. 46.
14. Charles Babbage, _On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures_,
Secs. 224-225. Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, Book 1, chap. 1,
p. 4.
15. F.W. Taylor, paper 1119, A.S.M.E., para. 51; para. 98-100.
16. F.A. Parkhurst, _Applied Methods of Scientific Management,
Industrial Engineering_, Oct. 1911, p. 251.
17. H.L. Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., para. 15.

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CHAPTER VII

RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES

DEFINITION OF RECORD.--A record is, according to the Century
Dictionary--"something set down in writing or delineated for the
purpose of preserving memory; specifically a register; an authentic
or official copy of any writing, or an account of any fact and
proceedings, whether public or private, usually entered in a book
for preservation; also the book containing such copy or account."[1]
The synonyms given are "note, chronicle, account, minute, memorandum."

FEW WRITTEN RECORDS UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--For the
purposes of this preliminary study of records, emphasis will be laid
on the fact that the record is written. Under Traditional Management
there are practically no such labor records. What records are kept
are more in the nature of "bookkeeping records," as Gillette and
Dana call them, records "showing debits and credits between
different accounts." In many cases, under Traditional Management,
not even such records of profit or loss from an individual piece of
work were kept, the manager, in extreme cases, oftentimes "keeping
his books in his head" and having only the vaguest idea of the state
of his finances.

IMPORTANCE OF RECORDS REALIZED UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT.--As
has been amply demonstrated in discussing Individuality and
Standardization, the recognition of the value of records is one of
the first indications of Transitory Management. Since this stage of
management has Scientific Management in view as "a mark to come to,"
the records evolved and used are not discarded by Scientific
Management, but are simply perfected. Therefore, there is no need to
discuss these transitory records, except to say that, from the
start, _quality_ of records is insisted upon before quantity of
records.

NO "BOOKKEEPING" RECORDS UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under
Scientific Management there are no "bookkeeping records" kept of
costs as such. Instead, there are "time and cost records," so
called, of the time and efficiency of performance. From these, costs
can be deduced at any time. Items of cost without relation to their
causes, on work that is not to be repeated, have little value. Cost
records, as such, usually represent a needless, useless expenditure
of time and money. It must be emphasized that Scientific Management
can in no way be identified with "cost keeping," in the sense that
is understood to mean aimlessly recording unrelated costs. Under
Scientific Management costs are an ever-present by-product of the
system, not a direct product.

RECORDS MUST LOWER COSTS AND SIMPLIFY WORK.--The quantity of
records that should be made depends on the amount, diversity and
state of development of the work done. No record should be made,
which does not, directly or indirectly, actually reduce costs or in
some way increase efficiency. The purpose of the records, as of
Scientific Management in general, is to simplify work. Only when
this is recognized, can the records made be properly judged.
Numerous as they may at times seem to be, their number is determined
absolutely by the satisfactory manner in which they--

1. Reduce costs.
2. Simplify work.
3. Increase efficiency.

RECORDS OF WORK AND WORKERS.--Records may be of the work or of
the worker[2]--that is to say, of material used, tools used, output
produced, etc., or of individual efficiency, in one form or another.
Records of efficiency may be of workers, of foremen, and of
managers, and a record may be made of any man in several capacities;
for example, a record is kept of a functional foreman in the form of
the work of the men who are under him, while another record might be
kept of him as a worker himself; for example, the time being taken
that it took him to teach others their duties, the time to learn
what was to be done on any new work, etc.

RECORDS OF INITIATIVE.--Records of initiative are embodied in
the Suggestion Card. Even under advanced Traditional Management the
cards are furnished to the men upon which to write any ideas as to
improvements. These suggestions are received, and, if accepted,
are rewarded.

Under Scientific Management such suggestions become more
valuable, for, as has been shown, they are based upon standards;
thus if accepted, they signify not only a real, but a permanent
improvement. Their greatest value, however, is in the stimulus that
they furnish to the worker, in the information that they furnish the
management as to which workers are interested, and in the spirit of
cooeperation that they foster.

The worker receives not only a money-reward, but also publicity,
for it is made known which worker has made a valuable suggestion.
This indicates that the worker has shown good judgment. His interest
is thus stimulated, his attention is held to his work, and the habit
of initiative comes to him. That this habit of initiative can be
fostered, is shown by the actual fact that in many sorts of work the
same man constantly makes suggestions. It becomes a habit with him
to look for the new way, and as he is constantly rewarded, the
interest is not allowed to diminish.

RECORDS OF GOOD BEHAVIOR.--Records of good behavior are
incorporated in the White List File. The White List File contains
the names of all men who have ever been employed who merit a
recommendation, if they should go to work for others, and would
deserve to be given work as soon as possible, if they came back.
This White List File should be filled out with many details, but
even if it contains nothing but a record of the names, and the
addresses where the men can be reached when new work starts up, it
has a stimulating effect upon the worker. He feels, again, the
element of permanence; there is a place for individuality, and not
only does the manager have the satisfaction of actually having this
list, and of using it, but a feeling that his men know that he is in
some way recognizing them, and endeavoring to make them and their
good work permanent.

RECORDS OF ACHIEVEMENT.--Records of achievement vary with the
amount and nature of the work done. Such records are, as far as
possible, marked upon programmes.

RECORDS MADE BY WORKER WHERE POSSIBLE.--Wherever possible the
worker makes his own records. Even when this is not advisable he is
informed of his record at as short intervals as are practicable.[3]

RECORDS MADE ON THE "EXCEPTION PRINCIPLE."--Much time is saved
by separating records for the inspection of the man above, simply
having him examine the exceptions to some desired condition,--the
records which are exceptionally good, the records which are
exceptionally bad. This not only serves as a reward to the man who
has a good record, and a punishment for the man who has had a bad
record, but it also enables the manager to discover at once what is
wrong and where it is wrong, and to remedy it.

The value of the exception principle can hardly be
overestimated. It would be of some value to know of exceptionally
good or poor work, even if the cause were not known. At least one
would be made to observe the signpost of success or of danger. But,
under Scientific Management, the cause appears simultaneously with
the fact on the record,--thus not only indicating the proper method
of repeating success, or avoiding failure, in the future, but also
showing, and making clear, the direct relation of cause to effect,
to the worker himself.

THIS DISCUSSION NECESSARILY INCOMPLETE.--The records mentioned
above are only a few of the types of records under Scientific
Management. Discussion has been confined to these, because they have
the most direct effect upon the mind of the worker and the manager.
Possible records are too numerous, and too diverse, to be described
and discussed in detail. They constitute a part of the "how" of
Scientific Management,--the manner in which it operates. This is
covered completely in the literature of Scientific Management,
written by men who have made Scientific Management and its
installation a life study. We need only further discuss the posting
of records, and their effect.

POSTING OF RECORDS BENEFICIAL.--As has been already noted under
Individuality, and must be again noted under Incentives, much
benefit is derived from posting records, especially when these are
of such a character, or are so posted, that the worker may see at a
glance the comparative excellence of his results.

SUMMARY

RESULTS OF RECORDS TO THE WORK.[4]--The results of recording are
the same under all forms of management, if the records are correct.

Output increases where records are kept. Under Traditional
Management there is the danger that pressure for quantity will
affect quality, especially if insufficient records of the resultant
quality are kept. Under Transitory and Scientific Management,
quality is maintained or improved, both because previous records set
the standard, and because following records exhibit the quality.

RESULTS TO THE WORKER.--James says, "A man's social use is the
recognition which he gets from his mates. We are not only gregarious
animals, liking to be liked in sight of our fellow, but we have an
innate propensity to get ourselves noticed, and noticed favorably,
by our kind. No more fiendish punishment could be devised, were such
a thing physically possible, than that one should be turned loose in
society and remain absolutely unnoticed by all the members thereof.
If no one turned around when we entered, answered when we spoke or
minded what we did, but if every person we met 'cut us dead' and
acted as if we were non-existing things, a kind of rage and impotent
despair would ere long well up in us, from which the cruelest bodily
tortures would be a relief; for these would make us feel that,
however bad might be our plight, we had not sunk to such a depth as
to be unworthy of attention at all."[5] This recognition the worker
gets partly through the records which are made of him.

SELF-KNOWLEDGE ATTAINED THROUGH RECORDS.--Through records of
output, and especially through charts of such records, and timed
motion-picture films, or micro-motion study pictures the worker may,
if he be naturally observant, or if he be taught to observe, gain a
fine knowledge of himself.

The constant exhibit of cause and effect of the relation of
output to, for example,--drink of alcoholic beverages; to smoking;
to food values; to nutrition; to family worries; and to other
outside influences;--in fact, the effects of numerous different
modes of living, are shown promptly to the worker in the form of
records.

Two things should here be noted:

1. The necessity of having more accurate records of the
worker and the work, that the relation oL cause to effect may be
more precise and authentic.

2. The necessity for so training the worker, before, as well
as after, he enters the industrial world, that he can better
understand and utilize the lesson taught by his own records and
those of others.

EDUCATIVE VALUE OF WORKER MAKING HIS OWN RECORD.--Under
Scientific Management in its most highly developed form, the worker
makes his own records on his return cards and hands them in. The
worker thus not only comes to realize, by seeing them and by writing
them down, what his records are, but he also realizes his individual
position to-day compared to what it was yesterday, and compared to
that of his fellows in the same line of work. Further, he gains
accuracy, he gains judgment, he gains a method of attack. He
realizes that, as the managers are more or less recorders, so also
he, in recording himself, is vitally connected with the management.
It is, after all, more or less an attitude of mind which he gains by
making out these records himself. It is because of this attitude of
mind, and of the value which it is to him, that he is made to make
out his own record under the ultimate form of management, even
though at times this may involve a sacrifice of the time in which he
must do it, and although he may work slower than could a specialist
at recording, who perhaps would, in spite of that, be paid less for
doing the work.

EXACT KNOWLEDGE VALUABLE.--We cannot emphasize too often in this
connection the far-reaching psychological effect upon the worker of
exact knowledge of the comparative efficiency of methods. The value
of this is seldom fully appreciated; for example, we are familiar
with the many examples where the worker has been flattered until he
believes that he cannot make mistakes or do inefficient work. This
is most often found where the glowing compliments to the
manufacturing department, found in the advertising pages of the
magazine and in the praises sung in print by the publicity
department, oftentimes ends in an individual overconfidence. This
unjustified self-esteem is soon shattered by accurate comparative
records.

On the other hand, hazing of the new worker and the sneers of
the jealous, accompanied by such trite expressions as--"You can't
teach an old dog new tricks," have often destroyed self-confidence
in a worker, who, in the absence of accurate records of his
efficiency, is trying to judge himself at new methods. The jibes and
jokes at the new man at the new work, and especially at the
experienced, efficient man at unfamiliar work cease, or at least are
wholly impotent, so far as discouraging the man is concerned,
provided the worker sees by the records of a true measuring device,
or method, that his work compares favorably with others of the same
experience, made under the same conditions.

DEFINITION OF PROGRAMME.--The word "programme" is defined by the
Century Dictionary as "a method of operation or line of procedure
prepared or announced beforehand. An outline or abstract of
something to be done or carried out."

TWO MEANINGS OF "PROGRAMME" IN MANAGEMENT.--The word "programme"
has two meanings in management.

1. the work, as it comes to the management to be done
2. the work as it is planned out by the managers, and handed
over to the worker to be done.

Programme as here used is a plan for doing work, the plan which
the planning department lays out and hands over for the performers,
or the workers, to do.

UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT NO ACCURATE PROGRAMME IS
POSSIBLE.--Under Traditional Management the plan is at best a
repetition of records of unscientifically planned work. The most
that the managers can hope to do is to lay out the time in which
they expect, after consulting previous elapsed time records, the
work to be done. Methods are not prescribed, so there is no
assurance that the calendar will be followed, for the times are set
by guess, or at best by referring to old unscientifically made
records.

UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT CALENDARS CAN BE DESIGNED.--Under
Transitory Management, with the introduction of systems, that is,
records of how the work has been done best at various times, come
methods and a possibility of a more exact calendar. There is some
likelihood under Transitory System of the work being done on time,
as the method has been considered and, in many cases, is specified.

UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ACCURATE CALENDARS POSSIBLE.--Under
Scientific Management programmes are based on accurate records
scientifically made and standardized, and a calendar may be made
that can be conformed to with exactness.

PROGRAMMES A MATTER OF ROUTING.--The problems of a programme
under Scientific Management are two, both problems of routing:--

1. to route materials to the work place.
2. to route the worker to the placed materials.

At first glance it might seem simpler to consider the worker as
static and the materials as in motion. The "routing" of the worker
is really often not a question of motion at all, as the worker, if
he were operating a machine, for example, would not change his
position between various pieces of work--except to rest from
fatigue--enough to be considered. The word "routing" is used
figuratively as regards the worker. He is considered as transported
by the management through the day's work.

But, whether the work move, or the worker, or both, programmes
must so plan out the progress of each, in detail, for as many days
ahead as possible, that the most efficient outcome will ensue.

ROUTING OF WORK.--The work is routed through schedules of
materials to buy, schedules of material to handle, and schedules of
labor to be performed. The skilled worker finds all the materials
for his work ready and waiting for him when he arrives at the task,
this being provided for by programmes made out many tasks ahead.

ROUTING OF WORKERS.--The workers themselves are routed by means
of the route sheet, route chart, pin plan and bulletin board.

The devices for laying out the work of the workers appeal to the
imagination as well as the reason. The route chart is a graphical
representation of a large river, starting with the small
stream,--the first operation, gathering to itself as the
tributaries, the various other operations,--till it reaches its full
growth, the completed work.

The pin plan, with each pin or flag representing a worker, or
work place, and following his progress on a plan of the work,
presents a bird's-eye view in miniature of the entire working force;
and the bulletin board, with its cards that represent work ahead,
not only eliminates actual delay of shifting from one task to
another, but permits studying out one task while doing another, and
also destroys all fear of delay between jobs.

IMPOSSIBILITY OF DESCRIBING ROUTING DEVICES ACCURATELY.--These
routing devices might all be described at length, but no description
could do them justice. A visit to a shop, or factory, or other
industrial organization operating under Scientific Management is
necessary, in order to appreciate not only their utility, but the
interest that they arouse. These programmes are no dead, static
things. They are alive, pulsing, moving, progressing with the
progress of the work.

PROPHECY BECOMES POSSIBLE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The
calendar, or chronological chart, becomes a true prophecy of what
will take place. This is based on the standardized elementary units,
and the variations from it will be so slight as to allow of being
disregarded.

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