L. M. Gilbreth - The Psychology of Management

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CHAPTER X

WELFARE

DEFINITION OF WELFARE.--"Welfare" means "a state or condition of
doing well; prosperous or satisfactory course or relation; exemption
from evil;" in other words, well-being. This is the primary meaning
of the word. But, to-day, it is used so often as an adjective, to
describe work which is being attempted for the good of industrial
workers, that any use of the word welfare has that fringe of meaning
to it.

"WELFARE" HERE INCLUDES TWO MEANINGS.--In the discussion of
welfare in this chapter, both meanings of the word will be included.
"Welfare" under each form of management will be discussed, first, as
meaning the outcome to the men of the type of management itself; and
second, as discussing the sort of welfare work which is used under
that form of management.

DISCUSSION OF FIRST ANSWERS. THREE QUESTIONS.--A discussion of
welfare as the result of work divides itself naturally into three
parts, or three questions:

What is the effect upon the physical life?
What is the effect upon the mental life?
What is the effect upon the moral life?

UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT NO PHYSICAL IMPROVEMENT.--The
indefiniteness of Traditional Management manifests itself again in
this discussion, it being almost impossible to make any general
statement which could not be controverted by particular examples;
but it is safe to say that in general, under Traditional Management,
there is not a definite physical improvement in the average worker.
In the first place, there is no provision for regularity in the
work. The planning not being done ahead, the man has absolutely no
way of knowing exactly what he will be called upon to do. There
being no measure of fatigue, he has no means of knowing whether he
can go to work the second part of the day, say, with anything like
the efficiency with which he could go to work in the first part of
the day. There being no standard, the amount of work which he can
turn out must vary according as the tools, machinery and equipment
are in proper condition, and the material supplies his needs.

NO GOOD HABITS NECESSARILY FORMED.--In the second place, under
Traditional Management there are no excellent habits necessarily
formed. The man is left to do fairly as he pleases, if only the
general outcome be considered sufficient by those over him. There
may be a physical development on his part, if the work be of a kind
which can develop him, or which he likes to such an extent that he
is willing to do enough of it to develop him physically; this liking
may come through the play element, or through the love of work, or
through the love of contest, or through some other desire for
activity, but it is not provided for scientifically, and the outcome
cannot be exactly predicted. Therefore, under Traditional Management
there is no way of knowing that good health and increased strength
will result from the work, and we know that in many cases poor
health and depleted strength have been the outcome of the work. We
may say then fairly, as far as physical improvement is concerned
that, though it might be the outcome of Traditional Management, it
was rather in spite of Traditional Management, in the sense at least
that the management had nothing to do with it, and had absolutely no
way of providing for it. The moment that it was provided for in any
systematic way, the Traditional Management vanished.

NO DIRECTED MENTAL DEVELOPMENT.--Second, mental development.
Here, again, there being no fixed habits, no specially trained habit
of attention, no standard, there was no way of knowing that the
man's mind was improving. Naturally, all minds improve merely with
experience. Experience must be gathered in, and must be embodied
into judgment. There is absolutely no way of estimating what the
average need in this line would be, it varies so much with the
temperament of the man. Again, it would usually be a thing that the
man himself was responsible for, and not the management, certainly
not the management in any impersonal sense. Some one man over an
individual worker might be largely responsible for improving him
intellectually. If this were so, it would be because of the
temperament of the over-man, or because of his friendly desire to
impart a mental stimulus; seldom, if ever, because the management
provided for its being imparted. Thus, there was absolutely no way
of predicting that wider or deeper interest, or that increased
mental capacity, would take place.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT DOUBTFUL.--As for moral development, in the
average Traditional Management it was not only not provided for, but
rather doubtful. A man had very little chance to develop real,
personal responsibilities, in that there was always some one over
him who was watching him, who disciplined him and corrected him, who
handed in the reports for him, with the result that he was in a very
slight sense a free agent. Only men higher up, the foremen and the
superintendents could obtain real development from personal
responsibilities. Neither was there much development of
responsibility for others, in the sense of being responsible for
personal development of others. Having no accurate standards to
judge by, there was little or no possibility of appreciation of the
relative standing of the men, either by the individual of himself,
or by others of his ability. The man could be admired for his
strength, or his skill, but not for his real efficiency, as measured
in any satisfactory way. The management taught self-control in the
most rudimentary way, or not at all. There was no distinct goal for
the average man, neither was there any distinct way to arrive at
such a goal; it was simply a case, with the man lower down, of
making good for any one day and getting that day's pay. In the more
enlightened forms of Traditional Management, a chance for promotion
was always fairly sure, but the moment that the line of promotion
became assured, we may say that Traditional Management had really
ceased, and some form of Transitory Management was in operation.

"SQUARE DEAL" LACKING.--Perhaps the worst lack under Traditional
Management is the lack of the "square deal." In the first place,
even the most efficient worker under this form of management was not
sure of his place. This not only meant worry on his part, which
distracted his attention from what he did, but meant a wrong
attitude all along the line. He had absolutely no way of knowing
that, even though he did his best, the man over him, in anger, or
because of some entirely ulterior thing, might not discharge him,
put him in a lower position. So also the custom of spying, the only
sort of inspection recognized under Traditional Management of the
most elementary form, led to a feeling on the men's part that they
were being constantly watched on the sly, and to an inability to
concentrate. This brought about an inability to feel really honest,
for being constantly under suspicion is enough to poison even one's
own opinion of one's integrity. Again, being at the beck and call of
a prejudiced foreman who was all-powerful, and having no assured
protection from the whims of such a man, the worker was obliged,
practically for self-protection, to try to conciliate the foremen by
methods of assuming merits that are obvious, on the surface. He
ingratiates himself in the favor of the foreman in that way best
adapted to the peculiarities of the character of the foreman,
sometimes joining societies, or the church of the foreman, sometimes
helping him elect some political candidate or relative; at other
times, by the more direct method of buying drinks, or taking up a
subscription for presenting the foreman with a gold watch, "in
appreciation of his fairness to all;" sometimes by consistently
losing at cards or other games of chance. When it is considered that
this same foreman was probably, at the time, enjoying a brutal
feeling of power, it is no wonder that no sense of confidence of the
"square deal" could develop. There are countless ways that the
brutal enjoyment of power could be exercised by the man in a
foreman's position. As has already been said, some men prefer
promotion to a position of power more than anything else. Nearly all
desire promotion to power for the extra money that it brings, and
occasionally, a man will be found who loves the power, although
unconsciously, for the pleasure he obtains in lording over other
human beings. This quality is present more or less in all human
beings. It is particularly strong in the savage, who likes to
torture captured human beings and animals, and perhaps the greatest
test for high qualifications of character and gentleness is that of
having power over other human beings without unnecessarily accenting
the difference in the situation. Under Military Management, there is
practically no limit to this power, the management being satisfied
if the foreman gets the work out of the men, and the men having
practically no one to appeal to, and being obliged to receive their
punishment always from the hands of a prejudiced party.

LITTLE POSSIBILITY OF DEVELOPMENT OF WILL.--Being under such
influence as this, there is little or no possibility of the
development of an intelligent will. The "will to do" becomes
stunted, unless the pay is large enough to lead the man to be
willing to undergo abuses in order to get the money. There is
nothing, moreover, in the aspect of the management itself to lead
the man to have a feeling of confidence either in himself, or in the
management, and to have that moral poise which will make him wish
to advance.

REAL CAPACITY NOT INCREASED.--With the likelihood of suspicion,
hate and jealousy arising, and with constant preparations for
conflict, of which the average union and employers' association is
the embodiment, naturally, real capacity is not increased, but is
rather decreased, under this form of management, and we may ascribe
this to three faults:

First, to lack of recognition of individuality,--men are handled
mostly as gangs, and personality is sunk.

Second, to lack of standardization, and to lack of time study,
that fundamental of all standardization, which leads to absolute
inability to make a measured, and therefore scientific judgment, and

Third, to the lack of teaching; to the lack of all
constructiveness.

These three lacks, then, constitute a strong reason why
Traditional Management does not add to the welfare of the men.

LITTLE SYSTEMATIZED WELFARE WORK UNDER TRADITIONAL
MANAGEMENT.--As for welfare work,--that is, work which the employers
themselves plan to benefit the men, if under such work be included
timely impulses of the management for the men, and the carrying of
these out in a more or less systematic way, it will be true to say
that such welfare work has existed in all times, and under all forms
of management. The kind-hearted man will show his kind heart
wherever he is, but it is likewise true to say that little
systematic beneficial work is done under what we have defined as
Traditional Management.

DEFINITE STATEMENTS AS TO WELFARE UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT
DIFFICULT TO MAKE.--It is almost impossible to give any statement as
to the general welfare of workers under Transitory Management,
because, from the very nature of the case, Transitory Management is
constantly changing. In the discussion of the various chapters, and
in showing how individuality, functionalization, measurement, and so
on, were introduced, and the psychological effect upon the men of
their being introduced, welfare was more or less unsystematically
considered. In turning to the discussion under Scientific Management
and showing how welfare is the result of Scientific Management and
is incorporated in it, much as to its growth will be included.

WELFARE WORK UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT IS USUALLY
COMMENDABLE.--As to the welfare work under Transitory Management,
much could be said, and much has been said and written. Typical
Welfare Work under Transitory Management deserves nothing but
praise. It is the result of the dedication of many beautiful lives
to a beautiful cause. It consists of such work as building rest
rooms for the employes, in providing for amusements, in providing
for better working conditions, in helping to better living
conditions, in providing for some sort of a welfare worker who can
talk with the employes and benefit them in every way, including
being their representative in speaking with the management.

AN UNDERLYING FLAW IS APPARENT.--There can be no doubt that an
enormous quantity of good has been done by this welfare work, both
positively, to the employes themselves, and indirectly, to the
management, through fostering a kinder feeling. There is, however, a
flaw to be found in the underlying principles of this welfare work
as introduced in Transitory Management, and that is that it takes on
more or less the aspect of a charity, and is so regarded both by the
employes and by the employer. The employer, naturally, prides
himself more or less upon doing something which is good, and the
employe naturally resents more or less having something given to him
as a sort of charity which he feels his by right.

ITS EFFECT IS DETRIMENTAL.--The psychological significance of
this is very great. The employer, feeling that he has bestowed a
gift, is, naturally, rather chagrined to find it is received either
as a right, or with a feeling of resentment. Therefore, he is often
led to decrease what he might otherwise do, for it is only an
unusual and a very high type of mind that can be satisfied simply
with the doing of the good act, without the return of gratitude. On
the other hand, the employe, if he be a man of pride, may resent
charity even in such a general form as this, and may, with an
element of rightness, prefer that the money to be expended be put
into his pay envelope, instead. If it is simply a case of better
working conditions, something that improves him as an efficient
worker for the management, he will feel that this welfare work is in
no sense something which he receives as a gift, but rather something
which is his right, and which benefits the employer exactly as much,
if not more than it benefits him.

WELFARE WORK NOT SELF-PERPETUATING.--Another fault which can be
found with the actual administration of the welfare work, is the
fact that it often disregards one of the fundamental principles of
Scientific Management, in that the welfare workers themselves do not
train enough people to follow in their footsteps, and thus make
welfare self-perpetuating.

In one case which the writer has in mind, a noble woman is
devoting her life to the welfare of a body of employes in an
industry which greatly requires such work. The work which she is
doing is undoubtedly benefiting these people in every aspect, not
only of their business but of their home lives, but it is also true
that should she be obliged to give up the work, or be suddenly
called away, the work would practically fall to pieces. It is built
up upon her personality, and, wonderful as it is, its basis must be
recognized as unscientific and temporary.

SCIENTIFIC PROVISION FOR WELFARE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--
Under Scientific Management general welfare is provided for by:--

The effect that the work has on physical improvement. This we
shall discuss under three headings--

1. the regularity of the work.
2. habits.
3. physical development.

As for the regularity of the work--we have

(a) The apportionment of the work and the rest. Under
Scientific Management, work time and rest time are
scientifically apportioned. This means that the man is
able to come to each task with the same amount of
strength, and that from his work he gains habits of
regularity.
(b) The laying out of the work. The standards upon which
the instruction cards are based, and the method of
preparing them, assure regularity.
(c) The manner of performing the work. Every time that
identical work is done, it is done in an identical
manner.

The resulting regularity has an excellent effect upon the
physical welfare of the worker.

2. Habits, under Scientific Management,

(a) are prescribed by standards. The various physical
habits of the man, the motions that are used, having
all been timed and then standardized, the worker
acquires physical habits that are fixed.
(b) are taught;[1] therefore they are not remote but come
actually and promptly into the consciousness and into
the action of the worker.
(c) are retained, because they are standard habits and
because the rewards which are given for using them make
it an object to the worker to retain them.
(d) Are reenforced by individuality and functionalization;
that is to say, the worker is considered as an
individual, and his possibilities are studied, before
he is put into the work; therefore, his own
individuality and his own particular function naturally
reenforce those habits which he is taught to form.
These habits, being scientifically derived, add to
physical improvement.

3. Physical development

(a) is fostered through the play element, has been
scientifically studied, and is utilized as far as
possible; the same is true of the love of work, which
is reenforced by the fact that the man has been placed
where he will have the most love for his work.
(b) is insured by the love of contest, which is provided
for not only by contest with others, but by the
constant contest of the worker with his own previous
records. When he does exceed these records he utilizes
powers which it is for his good physically, as well as
otherwise, to utilize.

RESULTS OF PHYSICAL IMPROVEMENT.--This regularity, good habits,
and physical development, result in good health, increased strength
and a better appearance. To these three results all scientific
managers testify. An excellent example of this is found in Mr.
Gantt's "Work, Wages and Profits," where the increased health, the
better color and the better general appearance of the workers under
Scientific Management is commented on as well as the fact that they
are inspired by their habits to dress themselves better and in every
way to become of a higher type.[2]

MENTAL DEVELOPMENT.--Welfare under Scientific Management is
provided for by Mental Development. This we may discuss under
habits, and under general mental development.

1. As for habits we must consider

(a) Habits of attention. Under Scientific Management, as we
have shown, attention must become a habit. Only when it
does become a habit, can the work required be properly
performed, and the reward received. As only those who
show themselves capable of really receiving the reward
are considered to be properly placed, ultimately all
who remain at work under Scientific Management must
attain this habit of attention.
(b) Habit of method of attack. This not only enables the
worker to do the things that he is assigned
satisfactorily, but also has the broadening effect of
teaching him how to do other things, i.e., showing him
the "how" of doing things, and giving him standards
which are the outcome of mental habits, and by which he
learns to measure.

2. General mental development is provided for by the experience
which the worker gets not only in the general way in which all who
work must give experience, but in the set way provided for by
Scientific Management. This is so presented to the worker that it
becomes actually usable at once. This not only allows him to judge
others, but provides for self-knowledge, which is one of the most
valuable of all of the outcomes of Scientific Management. He becomes
mentally capable of estimating his own powers and predicting what he
himself is capable of doing. The outcome of this mental development is

(a) wider interest.
(b) deeper interest.
(c) increased mental capabilities.

The better method of attack would necessarily provide for wider
interest. The fact that any subject taken up is in its ultimate
final unit form, would certainly lead to deeper interest; and the
exercise of these two faculties leads to increased mental
capabilities.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT.--Moral development under Scientific
Management results from the provisions made for cultivating--

1. personal responsibility.
2. responsibility for others.
3. appreciation of standing.
4. self-control.
5. "squareness."

1. Personal responsibility is developed by

(a) Individual recognition. When the worker was considered
merely as one of a gang, it was very easy for him to
shift responsibilities upon others. When he knows that
he is regarded by the management, and by his mates, as
an individual, that what he does will show up in an
individual record, and will receive individual reward
or punishment, necessarily personal responsibility is
developed.

Moreover, this individual recognition is brought to his mind by
his being expected to fill out his own instruction card. In this
way, his personal responsibility is specifically brought home
to him.

(b) The appreciation which comes under Scientific
Management. This appreciation takes the form of reward
and promotion, and of the regard of his fellow-workers;
therefore, being a growing thing, as it is under
Scientific Management, it insures that his personal
responsibility, shall also be a growing thing, and
become greater the longer he works under Scientific
Management.

2. Responsibility for others is provided for by the
inter-relation of all functions. It is not necessary that all
workers under Scientific Management should understand all about it.
However, many do understand, and the more that they do understand,
the more they realize that everybody working under Scientific
Management is more or less dependent upon everybody else. Every
worker must feel this, more or less, when he realizes that there are
eight functional bosses over him, who are closely related to him, on
whom he is dependent, and who are more or less dependent upon him.
The very fact that the planning is separated from the performing,
means that more men are directly interested in any one piece of
work; in fact, that every individual piece of work that is done is
in some way a bond between a great number of men, some of whom are
planning and some of whom are performing it. This responsibility for
others is made even more close in the dependent bonuses which are a
part of Scientific Management, a man's pay being dependent upon the
work of those who are working under him. Certainly, nothing could
bring the fact more closely to the attention of each and every
worker under this system, than associating it with the pay envelope.

3. Appreciation of standing is fostered by

(a) individual records. Through these the individual
himself knows what he has done, his fellows know, and
the management knows.
(b) comparative records, which show even those who might
not make the comparison, exactly how each worker
stands, with relation to his mates, or with relation to
his past records.

This appreciation of standing is well exemplified in the happy
phrasing of Mr. Gantt--"There is in every workroom a fashion, or
habit of work, and the new worker follows that fashion, for it isn't
respectable not to. The man or woman who ignores fashion does not
get much pleasure from associating with those that follow it, and
the new member consequently tries to fall in with the sentiment of
the community.[3] Our chart shows that the stronger the sentiment in
favor of industry is, the harder the new member tries and the sooner
he succeeds."

4. Self-control is developed by

(a) the habits of inhibition fostered by Scientific
Management,--that is to say, when the right habits are
formed, necessarily many wrong habits are eliminated.
It becomes a part of Scientific Management to inhibit
all inattention and wrong habits, and to concentrate
upon the things desired. This is further aided by
(b) the distinct goal and the distinct task which
Scientific Management gives, which allow the man to
hold himself well in control, to keep his poise and to
advance steadily.

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