L. M. Gilbreth - The Psychology of Management

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INDIVIDUALITY EMPHASIZED BY INSTRUCTION CARD.--This individual
task is embodied in an individual instruction card.

In all work where it is possible to do so, the worker is given
an individual instruction card, even though his operations and rest
periods are also determined by a gang instruction card. This card
not only tells the man what he is to do, how he can best do it, and
the time that it is supposed to take him to do it,--but it bears
also the signature of the man who made it. This in order that if the
worker cannot fulfill the requirements of the card he may lose no
time in determining who is to give him the necessary instructions or
help that will result in his earning his large wages. More than
this, he must call for help from his assigned teachers, as is stated
in large type on a typical Instruction Card as follows: "When
instructions cannot be carried out, foreman must at once report to
man who signed this card."

The signature of the man who made the card not only develops his
sense of individuality and responsibility, but helps create a
feeling of inter-responsibility between the workers in various parts
of the organization.

THE GANG INSTRUCTION CARD.--A gang instruction card is used for
such work only as must be done by a group of men all engaged at the
work at once, or who are working at a dependent sequence of
operations, or both. This card contains but those portions of the
instructions for each man which refer to those elements which must
be completed before a following element, to be done by the next man
in the sequence, can be completed. Because of the nature of the
work, the gang instruction card must be put in the hands of a
leader, or foreman, whether or not it is also in the hands of each
of the individuals. The amount of work which can be required as a
set task for each individual member of the gang, the allowance for
rest for overcoming fatigue, the time that the rest periods must
occur, and the proper pay, are fully stated on the Individual
Instruction Cards.

METHODS OF TEACHING FOSTER INDIVIDUALITY.--As will be shown at
length in the Chapter on Teaching, under Scientific Management
teaching is not only general, by "Systems," "Standing Orders," or
"Standard Practice," but also specific. Specialized teachers,
called, unfortunately for the emphasis desired to be put on
teaching, "functional foremen," help the individual worker to
overcome his peculiar difficulties.

This teaching not only allows every worker to supplement his
deficiencies of disposition or experience, but the teachers' places
give opportunities for those who have a talent for imparting
knowledge to utilize and develop it.

INDIVIDUAL INCENTIVE AND WELFARE.--Finally, individual incentive
and individual welfare are not only both present, but interdependent.
Desire for individual success, which might lead a worker to respond
to the incentive till he held back perhaps the work of others,
is held in balance by interdependence of bonuses. This will be
explained in full in the Chapters on Incentives and Welfare.

SUMMARY

RESULT OF IDEA OF INDIVIDUALITY UPON WORK.--To recapitulate;--
Under Traditional Management, because of its frequent neglect of the
idea of individuality, work is often unsystematized, and high output
is usually the result of "speeding up" only, with constant danger of
a falling off in quality overbalancing men and injury to men and
machinery.

Under Transitory Management, as outputs are separated,
separately recorded, and as the idea of Individuality is embodied in
selecting men, setting tasks, the instruction cards, periods of
rest, teaching, incentives and welfare, output increases without
undue pressure on the worker.

Under Scientific Management--with various elements which embody
individuality fully developed, output increases, to the welfare
of worker, manager, employer and consumer and with no falling off
in quality.

EFFECT UPON THE WORKER.--The question of the effect upon the
worker of emphasis laid upon individuality, can perhaps best be
answered by asking and answering the following questions:--

1. When, where, how, and how much is individuality
considered?
2. What consideration is given to the relation of the mind to
the body of the individual?
3. What is the relative emphasis on consideration of
individual and class?
4. In how far is the individual the unit?
5. What consideration is given to idiosyncrasies?
6. What is the effect toward causing or bringing about
development, that is, broadening, deepening and making
the individual more progressive?

EXTENT OF CONSIDERATION OF INDIVIDUALITY.--1. Under Traditional
Management consideration of individuality is seldom present, but
those best forms of Traditional Management that are successful are
so because it is present. This is not usually recognized, but
investigation shows that the successful manager, or foreman, or
boss, or superintendent succeeds either because of his own
individuality or because he brings out to good advantage the
individual possibilities of his men. The most successful workers
under Traditional Management are those who are allowed to be
individuals and to follow out their individual bents of greatest
efficiency, instead of being crowded down to become mere members of
gangs, with no chance to think, to do, or to be anything but parts
of the gang.

Under Transitory Management, and most fully under Scientific
Management, the spirit of individuality, far from being crowded out,
is a basic principle, and everything possible is done to encourage
the desire to be a personality.

RELATION OF MIND TO BODY.--Under Traditional Management, where
men worked in the same employ for a long time, much consideration
was given to the relation of the mind to the body. It was realized
that men must not be speeded up beyond what they could do
healthfully; they must have good sleeping quarters and good, savory
and appetizing food to eat and not be fatigued unnecessarily, if
they were to become successful workers. More than this,
philanthropic employers often attempted to supply many kinds of
comfort and amusement.

Under Transitory Management the physical and mental welfare are
provided for more systematically.

Under Scientific Management consideration of the mind and body
of the workman, and his health, and all that that includes, is a
subject for scientific study and for scientific administration. As
shown later, it eliminates all discussion and troubles of so-called
"welfare work," because the interests of the employer and the worker
become identical and everything that is done becomes the concern
of both.

Scientific Management realizes that the condition of the body
effects every possible mental process. It is one of the great
advantages of a study of the psychology of management that the
subject absolutely demands from the start, and insists in every
stage of the work, on this relationship of the body to the mind, and
of the surroundings, equipment, etc., of the worker to his work.

It is almost impossible, in management, to separate the subject
of the worker from that of his work, or to think of the worker as
not working except in such a sense as "ceasing-from-work,"
"about-to-work," "resting to overcome fatigue of work," or "resting
during periods of unavoidable delays." The relation of the worker to
his work is constantly in the mind of the manager. It is for this
reason that not only does management owe much to psychology, but
that psychology, as applied to any line of study, will, ultimately,
be recognized as owing much to the science of management.

RELATIVE EMPHASIS ON INDIVIDUAL AND CLASS.--Under Traditional
Management the gang, or the class, usually receives the chief
emphasis. If the individual developed, as he undoubtedly did, in
many kinds of mechanical work, especially in small organizations, it
was more or less because it was not possible for the managers to
organize the various individuals into classes or gangs. In the
transitory stage the emphasis is shifting. Under Scientific
Management the emphasis is most decidedly and emphatically upon the
individual as the unit to be managed, as has been shown.

INDIVIDUAL AS THE UNIT.--Under Traditional Management the
individual was seldom the unit. Under Transitory Management the
individual is the unit, but there is not much emphasis in the early
stages placed upon his peculiarities and personalities. Under
Scientific Management the unit is always the individual, and the
utilizing and strengthening of his personal traits, special ability
and skill is a dominating feature.

EMPHASIS ON IDIOSYNCRASIES.--Under Traditional Management there
is either no consideration given to idiosyncrasies, or too wide a
latitude is allowed. In cases where no consideration is given, there
is often either a pride in the managers in "treating all men alike,"
though they might respond better to different handling, or else the
individual is undirected and his personality manifests itself in all
sorts of unguided directions, many of which must necessarily be
wasteful, unproductive, or incomplete in development. Under
Scientific Management, functionalization, as will be shown, provides
for the utilization of all idiosyncrasies and efficient deviations
from class, and promotion is so planned that a man may develop along
the line of his chief ability. Thus initiative is encouraged and
developed constantly.

DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUALITY.--The development of individuality
is more sure under Scientific Management than it is under either of
the other two forms of management, (a) because this development is
recognized to be a benefit to the worker and to the employer and (b)
because this development as a part of a definite plan is provided
for and perfected scientifically.

CHAPTER II FOOTNOTES: ==============================================

1. William James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 1.
2. Hugo Muensterberg, _American Problems_, p. 34.
3. Mary Whiton Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, p. 1.
4. James Sully, _Teacher's Handbook of Psychology_, p. 14.
5. James Sully, _Teacher's Handbook of Psychology_, p. 577.
6. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits_, p. 52.
7. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, p. 25. (Harper & Bros.)
8. F.B. Gilbreth, _Motion Study_, p. 7.
9. L.B. Blan, _A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation_,
p. 89.
10. Hugo Muensterberg, _American Problems_, pp. 38-39.
11. F.B. Gilbreth, _Cost Reducing System_, Chap. III.

====================================================================

CHAPTER III

FUNCTIONALIZATION

DEFINITION OF FUNCTIONALIZATION.--A function, says the Century
Dictionary, is--"The fulfilment or discharge of a set duty or
requirement, exercise of a faculty or office, or power of acting,
faculty,--that power of acting in a specific way which appertains to
a thing by virtue of its special constitution; that mode of action
or operation which is proper to any organ, faculty, office
structure, etc. (This is the most usual signification of the term)."

"Functionalization" is not given in the Century Dictionary. The
nearest to it to be found there is "Functionality," which is defined
as--"The state of having or being a function." Functionalization as
here used means--the state of being divided into functions, or being
functionalized. "Functionalize" is given in the Century Dictionary,
defined as "to assign some office or function to"--the note being
made that it is rare. "Functionalize" may not be the best word that
could be used in this connection, but there seems to be no other
word in the English language which contains its full meaning,
therefore we will use the word here in the sense of assigning work
according to capacity or faculty. A faculty means--"A specific
power, mental or physical; a special capacity for any particular
kind of action or affection; natural capability."

PSYCHOLOGICAL USE OF FUNCTIONALIZATION.--The word "Function" is
in constant use by modern psychologists, especially by those who
believe that--"Psychology is the science of the self in relation to
environment,"[1] or that "Psychology is a scientific account of our
mental processes."[2] Sully defines a function as "a psychologically
simple process,"[3] and compares its elementariness to a muscular
contraction as an element of a step in walking.

In investigating the principle of Functionalization as embodied
in various forms of Management, we must note that, while Management
can, and does under Scientific Management, attempt to functionalize
_work_ as far as possible, it will be impossible to come to ultimate
results until a psychological study of the requirement of the
work _from_ the worker, and results of the work _on_ the worker
is made.[4]

FUNCTIONALIZATION IN MANAGEMENT.--"Functional Management"
consists, to quote Dr. Taylor, "in so directing the work of
management that each man from the assistant superintendent down
shall have as few functions as possible to perform. If practicable,
the work of each man in the management should be confined to the
performance of a single leading function."[5]

A study of functionalization as applied to management must
answer the following questions:

1. How is the work divided?
2. How are the workers assigned to the work?
3. What are the results to the work?
4. What are the results to the worker?

TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT SELDOM FUNCTIONALIZES.--Under Traditional
Management the principle of Functionalization was seldom applied or
understood. Even when the manager tried to separate planning from
performing, or so to divide the work that each worker could utilize
his special ability, there were no permanently beneficial results,
because there was no standard method of division.

THE WORK OF THE FOREMAN NOT PROPERLY DIVIDED.--The work of a
foreman was not divided, but the well rounded man, as Dr. Taylor
says,[6] was supposed to have

1. Brain
2. Education
3. Special or technical knowledge, manual dexterity or strength
4. Tact
5. Energy
6. Grit
7. Honesty
8. Judgment, or common sense
9. Good health.

Dr. Taylor says--"Plenty of men who possess only three of the
above qualities can be hired at any time for laborer's wages. Add
four of these qualities together, and you get a higher priced man.
The man combining five of these qualities begins to be hard to find,
and those with 6, 7 and 8 are almost impossible to get."

Yet, under Traditional Management these general qualities and
many points of specific training were demanded of the foreman. Dr.
Taylor has enumerated the qualifications or the duties of a gang
boss in charge of lathes or planers.[7] Careful reading of this
enumeration will show most plainly that the demands made were almost
impossible of fulfillment.[8]

Another list which is interesting is found in "Cost Reducing
System," a long list of the duties of the Ideal Superintendent or
foreman in construction work.[9]

QUALIFICATIONS AND DUTIES OF
FIRST CLASS FOREMAN

A first class foreman must have:
bodily
strength
brains
common sense
education
energy
good health
good judgment
grit
manual dexterity
special knowledge
tact
technical knowledge.

He must be:
able to concentrate his mind upon small things
able to read drawings readily
able to visualize the work at every stage of its progress,
and even before it begins
a master of detail
honest
master of at least one trade.

His duties consist of:
considering broad policies.
considering new applicants for important positions.
considering the character and fitness of the men.
determining a proper day's work.
determining costs.
determining the method of compensation.
determining the sequence of events for the best results.
disciplining the men.
dividing the men into gangs for speed contests.
fixing piece and day rates.
getting rid of inferior men.
handling relations with the unions.
hiring good men.
installing such methods and devices as will detect dishonesty.
instructing the workman.
keeping the time and disciplining those who are late or absent.
laying out work.
looking ahead to see that there are men enough for future work.
looking ahead to see that there is enough future work for the men.
making profits.
measuring each man's effort fairly.
obtaining good results in quality.
paying the men on days when they are discharged.
paying the men on pay day.
preventing soldiering.
readjusting wages.
retaining good men.
seeing that all men are honest.
seeing that men are shifted promptly when breakdowns occur.
seeing that repairs are made promptly before breakdowns occur,
seeing that repairs are made promptly after breakdowns occur.
seeing that the most suitable man is allotted to each part
of the work.
seeing that the work is not slighted.
setting piece work prices.
setting rates.
setting tasks.
supervising timekeeping.
teaching the apprentices.
teaching the improvers.
teaching the learners.

In studying these lists we note--

1. That the position will be best filled by a very high and
rare type of man.
2. That the man is forced to use every atom of all of his
powers and at the same time to waste his energies in doing much
unimportant pay reducing routine work, some of which could be
done by clerks.
3. That in many cases the work assigned for him to do calls
for qualifications which are diametrically opposed to each other.
4. That psychology tells us that a man fitted to perform some
of these duties would probably be mentally ill fitted for
performing others in the best possible way that they could be
performed.

WORK NOT WELL DONE.--Not only does the foreman under Traditional
Management do a great deal of work which can be done by cheaper men,
but he also wastes his time on clerical work in which he is not a
specialist, and, therefore, which he does not do as well as the work
can be done by a cheaper man, and this takes more of his time than
he ought to devote to it. The result is that the work is not done as
well as it can and should be done.

A most perfect illustration of a common form of Traditional
Management is the old story of the foreman, who, in making his
rounds of the various parts of the work, comes to the deep hole
being excavated for a foundation pier and says hurriedly--"How many
of yez is there in the hole?" "Seven." "The half of yez come up."

The theoretical defects of the old type of management often seen
before the advent of the trained engineer on the work include:--

1. lack of planning ahead.
2. an overworked foreman.
3. no functionalizing of the work.
4. no standards of individual efficiency.
5. unmeasured individual outputs.
6. no standard methods.
7. no attempt at teaching.
8. inaccurate directions.
9. lack of athletic contests.
10. no high pay for extra efficiency.
11. poor investigation of workers' special capabilities.

In spite of the fact that under unfunctionalized management the
foreman has far more to do than he can expect to do well, the
average foreman thinks that he belongs to a class above his
position. This is partly because the position is so unstandardized
that it arouses a sense of unrest, and partly because he has to
spend much of his time at low priced functions.

Under the feeling of enmity, or at least, of opposition, which
often exists, openly or secretly, between the average Traditional
Management and men, the foreman must ally himself with one side or
the other. If he joins with the men, he must countenance the
soldiering, which they find necessary in order to maintain their
rates of wages. Thus the output of the shop will seldom increase and
his chance for appreciation and promotion by the management will
probably be slight and slow. His position as boss, combined with
that of ally of the men, is awkward.

If he allies himself to the management, he must usually become a
driver of the men, if he wishes to increase output. This condition
will never be agreeable to him unless he has an oversupply of brute
instincts.

THE WORKERS NOT BEST UTILIZED.--Under the best types of
Traditional Management we do find more or less spasmodic attempts at
the functionalization of the worker. When there was any particular
kind of work to be done, the worker who seemed to the manager to be
the best fitted, was set at that kind of work. For example--if there
was a particularly heavy piece of work he might say--"Let A do it
because he is strong." If there was a particularly fine piece of
work to be done he might say--"Let B do it because he is specially
skilled." If there was a piece of work to be done which required
originality, he might say--"Let C do it for the reason that he is
inventive and resourceful;" but, in most cases, when the particular
job on hand was finished, the worker selected to do it returned to
other classes of work, and such special fitness or capability as he
had, was seldom systematically utilized, or automatically assigned
to his special function, neither was such experience as he had
gained systematically conserved. Moreover, no such study of the work
to be done had been made as would prove that the assignment of that
particular worker to the work was right. The psychology of this was
entirely wrong,--not only had no such study of the general and
particular characteristics, traits, faculties, and talents of the
man been made as would prove that he was the right man to be
assigned, but the mere fact that he possessed one quality necessary
for the work, if he really did possess it, was no sign that the
other qualities which he possessed might not make him the wrong man
to be chosen. Even if the man did happen to be assigned to work for
which he was particularly suited, unless provision were made to keep
him at such work only, to keep him well supplied with work, to allow
time for rest, and to provide proper pay, he could not utilize his
capabilities to the fullest extent.

TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONALIZES.--Under Transitory
Management, management becomes gradually more and more functionalized.
With separated outputs and separate records, the worker's
capabilities become apparent, and he can be assigned to the
standardized positions which gradually evolve. Every recognition of
individuality carries with it a corresponding functionalization of
men and work.

FUNCTIONALIZATION A FUNDAMENTAL OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--With
Scientific Management comes the realization that with close study
and with functionalization only, can that provision and assignment
of the work which is best for both work and worker be obtained. The
principle is applied to every part of management, and results in

1. separating the planning from the performing.
2. functionalizing foremen.
3. functionalizing workers.
4. assigning competent workers to fitting work.

SEPARATING THE PLANNING FROM THE PERFORMING.--The emphasis on
separating the planning from the performing in Scientific Management
cannot be over-estimated. It is a part of Dr. Taylor's fourth
principle of Scientific Management, "Almost equal division of the
work and the responsibility between the management and the
workmen."[10] The greatest outputs can be achieved to the greatest
benefit to managers and men when the work is divided, the management
undertaking that part of the work that it is best fitted to do, the
workmen performing that part which they are best fitted to do.

THE WORK OF THE PLANNING DEPARTMENT.--It has been determined by
actual experience that the line of division most agreeable to the
managers and the workmen and most productive of cooeperation by both,
as well as most efficient in producing low costs, is that which
separates the planning from the performing. Under Scientific
Management the Planning Department relieves the man of determining--

1. what work is to be done.
2. sequence in which it is to be done.
3. method by which it shall be done.
4. where it shall be done.
5. which men shall do it.
6. time that it shall take.
7. exact quality of product.
8. quantity of additional pay that shall be given for doing it.

WORK OF THE WORKERS.--The men are simply given standard tasks to
do, with teachers to help them, and a standard wage according to
performance as a reward. There are but three things expected
of them:--

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