L. M. Gilbreth - The Psychology of Management

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WORKER SHOULD UNDERSTAND THE PROCESS OF ANALYSIS.--It is not
enough that the worker should understand the methods of measurement.
He can get most from the resultant standards and will most
efficiently cooeperate if he understands the division into elements
to be studied.

SCHOOLS SHOULD PROVIDE TRAINING.--Much of the training in
analysis in the schools comes at such a late period of the course
that the average industrial worker must miss a large part of it.
This is a defect in school training that should be remedied. Even
very young children soon are capable of, and greatly enjoy, dividing
a process into elements. If the worker be taught, in his
preparations, and in the work itself, to divide what he does into
its elements, he will not only enjoy analysis of his work, but will
be able to follow the analysis in his own mind, and to cooeperate
better in the processes of measurement.

THE SYNTHESIST'S WORK IS SELECTION AND ADDITION.--The synthesist
studies the individual results of the analyst's work, and their
inter-relation, and determines which of these should be combined,
and in what manner, for the most economic result. His duty is to
construct that combination of the elements which will be most
efficient.

IMPORTANCE OF SELECTION MUST BE EMPHASIZED.--If synthesis in
Scientific Management were nothing more than combining all the
elements that result from analysis into a whole, it would be
valuable. Any process studied analytically will be performed more
intelligently, even if there is no change in the method.

But the most important part of the synthesist's work is the
actual elimination of elements which are useless, and the combination
of the remaining elements in such a way, or sequence, or schedule,
that a far better method than the one analyzed will result.

We may take an example from Bricklaying.[5] In "Stringing
Mortar Method, on the Filling Tiers before the Days of the
Pack-on-the-Wall-Method"--the division, which was into operations
only, showed eighteen operations and eighteen motions for every
brick that was laid. Study and synthesis of these elements resulted
in a method that required only 1 3/4 motions to lay a brick. Over
half the original motions were found to be useless, hence entirely
omitted. In several other cases it was found possible to make one
motion do work for two or four brick, with the same, or less,
fatigue to the worker.

RESULT IS THE BASIS FOR THE TASK.--The result of synthesis is
the basis for the task,--it becomes the standard that shows what
has actually been done, and what can be expected to be repeated. It
is important to note the relation between the task and synthesis.
When it becomes generally understood that the "Task," under
Scientific Management is neither an ideal which exists simply in the
imagination, nor an impossibly high estimate of what can be
expected,--but is actually the sum of observed and timed operations,
plus a definite and sufficient percentage of allowance for
overcoming the fatigue,--then much objection to it will cease.

GENERAL LACK OF KNOWLEDGE THE CHIEF CAUSE OF OBJECTION TO THE
TASK.--As is the case with most objections to Scientific Management,
or its elements, ignorance is the chief obstacle to the introduction
and success of the Task Idea. This ignorance seems to be more or
less prevalent everywhere among managers as well as workers.

Scientific Management can, and does, succeed even when the
workers are ignorant of many of its fundamental principles, but it
will never make the strides that it should until every man working
under it, as well as all outside, understand _why_ it is doing as it
does, as well as _what_ is done.

This educational campaign could find no better starting point
than the word "task," and the "task idea."

THE NAME TASK IS UNFORTUNATE.[6]--The Century Dictionary defines
"Task" as follows:

1. "a tax, an assessment, an impost
2. "labor imposed, especially a definite quantity or amount
of labor; work to be done; one's stint; that which duty or
necessity imposes; duty or duties collectively
3. "a lesson to be learned; a portion of study imposed by a
teacher
4. "work undertaken,--an undertaking
5. "burdensome employment; toil."

Only the fourth meaning, as here given, covers in any way what
is meant by the task in Scientific Management.

The ideas included in the other four definitions are most
unpleasant. The thought of labor; the thought that the labor is
imposed; the thought that the imposition is definite; that duty
makes it necessary that it be done; that it is burdensome; that it
is toilsome: these are most unfortunate ideas and have been
associated with the word so long in the human mind that it will be a
matter of years before a new set of associations can be formed which
will be pleasant, and which will render the word "task" attractive
and agreeable to the worker and to the public in general.

NO OTHER ADEQUATE WORD HAS BEEN SUGGESTED.--However, there seems
to be no better word forthcoming; therefore, one can but follow the
example of the masters in management, who have accepted this word,
and have done their best to make it attractive by the way they
themselves have used it.

To the writer, the word "stint" is far more attractive and
more truly descriptive than is "task." Perhaps because of the
old-fashioned idea that a reward, usually immediate, followed the
completion of the "stint."

Opinions as to a preferable word will doubtless vary, but it is
self-evident that the word "task" has already become so firmly
established in Scientific Management that any attempt to change it
would result in a confusion. It is far better to concentrate on
developing a new set of associations for it in as many minds
as possible.

DECIDED ADVANTAGE TO THE USE OF THE WORD TASK.--Perhaps in one
way it is fortunate that the use of the word "task" does coincide
more or less with the use of that word under Traditional Management.
Under Traditional Management the task is the work to be done. It may
be just as well that the same word should be used under Scientific
Management, in order that both the worker and investigator may
realize, that, after all _the work that is to be done_ is, in its
essentials, exactly the same. With this realization from the
beginning, the mind of the worker or investigator may be the more
predisposed to note the eliminations of waste and the cutting down
of time, effort and fatigue under the scientifically derived methods.

DEFINITION OF TASK AS USED IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The task,
under Scientific Management, differs from the task under Traditional
Management in that--

1. The tools and surrounding conditions with which the work
shall be done are standardized.
2. The method in which the work shall be done is prescribed.
3. The time that the work shall take is scientifically
determined.
4. An allowance is made for rest from fatigue.
5. The quality of the output is prescribed.

When to this is added the fact that the method is taught, and
that the reward is ample, fixed, prompt and assured, the attractive
features of the task under Scientific Management have been made plain.

TASK IDEA APPLIES TO WORK OF EVERYONE.--Under Scientific
Management there is a task for every member of the organization,
from the head of the management to the worker at the most
rudimentary work. This is too often not known, or not appreciated by
the worker, who feels that what is deemed best for him should be
good for everyone. The mental attitude will never be right till all
understand that the task idea will increase efficiency when applied
to any possible kind of work. With the application of the task idea
to all, will come added cooeperation.

TASK IDEA APPLIES TO THE WORK OF THE ORGANIZATION.--The work
which is to be done by the organization should be considered the
task of the organization, and this organization task is studied
before individual tasks are set. The methods used in determining
this organization task are analysis and synthesis, just as in the
case of the individual task.

INDIVIDUAL TASKS ARE ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATION TASK.--The
individual tasks are considered as elements of the organization
task. The problem is, to determine the best arrangement of these
individual tasks, the best schedule, and routing. The individual
task may be thought of as something moving, that must be gotten out
of the way.

Management has been called largely a matter of transportation.
It may be "transportation" or moving of materials, revolution of
parts of fixed machinery, or merely transportation of parts of one's
body in manual movements;[7] in any case, the laws governing
transportation apply to all. This view of management is most
stimulating to the mind. A moving object attracts attention and
holds interest. Work that is interesting can be accomplished with
greater speed and less fatigue. Thinking in terms of the methods of
Scientific Management as the most accurate and efficient in
transporting the finished output and its "chips"[8] will be a great
aid towards attaining the best results possible by means of a new
method of visualizing the problem.

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SYNTHESIST.--The synthesist must have a
constructive mind, for he determines the sequence of events as well
as the method of attack. He must have the ability to see the
completed whole which he is trying to make, and to regard the
elements with which he works not only as units, but in relation to
each other. He must feel that any combination is influenced not only
by the elements that go into it, but by the inter-relation between
these elements. This differs for different combinations as in
a kaleidoscope.

THE SYNTHESIST A CONSERVER.--The Synthesist must never be
thought of as a destructive critic. He is, in reality, a conserver
of all that is valuable in old methods. Through his work and that of
the analyst, the valuable elements of traditional methods are
incorporated into standard methods. These standard methods will,
doubtless, be improved as time goes on, but the valuable elements
will be permanently conserved.

SYNTHESIST AN INVENTOR.--The valuable inventions referred to as
the result of measurement are the work of the synthetic mind. It
discovers new, better methods of doing work, and this results in the
invention of better means, such as tools or equipment.

For example,--in the field of Bricklaying, the Non-stooping
Scaffold, the Packet and the Fountain Trowel were not invented until
the analysis of bricklaying was made, and the synthesis of the
chosen elements into standard methods made plain the need and
specifications for new equipment.

RELATION OF INVENTION TO SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IMPORTANT.--There
has been much discussion as to the relation of Invention to
Scientific Management. It has been claimed by many otherwise able
authorities that many results claimed as due to Scientific
Management are really the results of new machinery, tools or
equipment that have been invented.[9] Scientific Management
certainly can lay no claim to credit for efficiency which comes
through inventions neither suggested nor determined by it. But the
inventions from the results of which Scientific Management is said
to have borrowed credit are usually, like the bricklaying inventions
cited, not only direct results of Scientific Management, but
probably would not have sprung from any other source for years
to come.

SYNTHESIST A DISCOVERER OF LAWS.--It is the synthetic type of
mind that discovers the laws. For example--it was Dr. Taylor, with
the aid of a few of his specially trained co-workers, who discovered
the following governing laws:

1. law of no ratio between the foot-pounds of work done and
the fatigue caused in different kinds of work.
2. law of percentage of rest for overcoming fatigue.
3. law of classification of work according to percentage of
fatigue caused.
4. laws for making high-speed steel.
5. laws relating to cutting metals.
6. laws that will predict the right speed, feed and cut on
metals for the greatest output.
7. laws for predicting maximum quantity of output that a man
can achieve and thrive.
8. laws for determining the selection of the men best suited
for the work.

SYNTHESIST AN ADVISER ON INTRODUCTION OF NEW METHODS.--Having
constructed the standard tasks or standard methods which are new,
the synthesist must remember to introduce his new task or method
with as few new variables as possible. He should so present it that
all the old knowledge will come out to meet the new, that all the
brain paths that have already been made will be utilized, and that
the new path will lead out from paths which are well known and well
traveled.

INTRODUCE WITH AS FEW NEW VARIABLES AS POSSIBLE.--The greatest
speed in learning a new method will be attained by introducing it
with as few new variables as possible.

For example,--learning to dictate to a dictaphone. The writer
found it very difficult, at first, to dictate into the dictaphone,--
the whirling of the cylinder distracted the eye, the buzzing of the
motor distracted the ear, the rubber tube leading to the mouth-piece
was constantly reminding the touch that something new was being
attempted. At the suggestion of one well versed in Scientific
Management, the mouth-piece of the dictaphone was propped on the
desk telephone on a level with the mouth-piece of the latter. The
writer then found that as soon as one became interested in the
dictating and one's attention was concentrated on the thought, one
was able absolutely to forget the new variable, because it is one
which is kept constant, and to dictate fluently. The emphasis laid
on the likeness in thus dictating to the old accustomed act of
talking through the telephone, seemed to put all other differences
into the background, and to allow of forming the new and desired
habit very quickly.

SUMMARY

EFFECT OF ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS ON THE WORK.--As the outcome of
Analysis and Synthesis is Standardization, so the effect of them
upon work is standard work. Quantity of output can be predicted,
quality of output is assured.

EFFECT ON THE WORKER.--The effect of Analysis and Synthesis upon
the worker is to make him feel that the methods which he is using
are right, and that, because of this, his work must be of value. The
more the worker is induced to cooeperate in the determining and the
combination of elements, the more will he share with the
investigators the satisfaction in getting permanent results. The
outcome of this cooeperation will, again, result in more perfect
future results, and so on, progressively.

CHAPTER V FOOTNOTES: ===============================================

1. Compare _Mechanical Analysis_. Taylor and Thompson, _Concrete,
Plain and Reinforced_, p. 193.
2. H. LeChatelier, Discussion of Paper 1119, A.S.M.E., p. 303.
3. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits_, p. 35.
4. F.B. Gilbreth, _Cost Reducing System_.
5. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, p. 151.
6. James M. Dodge, Discussion of Paper 1119, A.S.M.E., para. 284.
7. F.B. Gilbreth, _Motion Study_.
8. James M. Dodge.
9. London, _Engineering_, Sept. 15, 1911.

====================================================================

CHAPTER VI

STANDARDIZATION

DEFINITION OF STANDARDIZATION.--Standardization is "the act of
standardizing, or the state of being standardized." "A standard,"
according to the Century Dictionary, "is that which is set up as a
unit of reference; a form, type, example, incidence, or combination
of conditions accepted as correct and perfect and hence as a basis
of comparison. A criterion established by custom, public opinion or
general consent; a model."[1]

We must note particularly that the standard is a "unit of
reference," that it is a "basis of comparison," and that it is "a
model." These three phrases describe the standard in management, and
are particularly emphasized by the use of the standard in Scientific
Management.

STANDARDS DERIVED FROM ACTUAL PRACTICE.--Management derives its
standards not from theories as to best methods, but from scientific
study of actual practice.[2] As already shown, the method of
deriving a standard is--

1. to analyze the best practice known into the smallest
possible elements,
2. to measure these elements,
3. to adopt the least wasteful elements as standard elements,
4. to synthesize the necessary standard elements into
the standard.

THE STANDARD IS PROGRESSIVE.--A standard remains fixed only
until a more perfect standard displaces it. The data from which the
standard was derived may be reviewed because of some error, because
a further subdivision of the elements studied may prove possible, or
because improvements in some factor of the work, i.e., the worker,
material, tools, equipment, etc., may make a new standard desirable.

The fact that a standard is recognized as not being an ultimate
standard in no wise detracts from its working value. As Captain
Metcalfe has said: "Whatever be the standard of measurement, it
suffices for comparison if it be generally accepted, if it be
impartially applied, and if the results be fully recorded."[3]

CHANGE IN THE STANDARD DEMANDS CHANGE IN THE TASK AND IN THE
INCENTIVE.--Necessarily, with the change in the standard comes a
change in the task and in the reward. All parts of Scientific
Management are so closely related that it is impossible to make a
successful progressive step in one branch without simultaneously
making all the related progressions in other branches that go
with it.

For example,--if the material upon which a standard was based
caused more care or effort, a smaller task must be set, and wages
must be proportionately lowered. _Proportionately_, note, for
determining that change would necessitate a review and a
redistribution of the cost involved.

In the same way, if an improvement in equipment necessitated a
new method, as does the packet in laying brick, a new task would
become imperative, and a reconsideration of the wage. The wage might
remain the same, it might go down, it might go up. In actual
practice, in the case of bricklayers, it has gone up. But the point
is, it _must_ be restudied. This provides effectually against
cutting the rate or increasing the task in any unjust manner.

SIMILARITY BETWEEN THE STANDARD AND THE "JUDGMENT" OF
PSYCHOLOGY.--There are many points of similarity between the
"Standard," of management, and the "judgment" of psychology. Sully
says, in speaking of the judgment,[4]--"This process of judging
illustrates the two fundamental elements in thought activity, viz.,
analysis and synthesis." "To judge is clearly to discern and to mark
off as a special object of thought some connecting relation." "To
begin with, before we can judge we must have the requisite materials
for forming a judgment." "In the second place, to judge is to carry
out a process of reflection on given material." "In addition to
clearness and accuracy, our judgments may have other perfections. So
far as our statements accord with known facts, they should be
adhered to,--at least, till new evidence proves them untrue."

PSYCHOLOGY A FINAL APPEAL AS TO PERMANENT VALUE OF ANY
STANDARD.--The standard under management, even under Scientific
Management, can lay no claim to being perfect. It can never nearly
approach perfection until the elements are so small that it is
practicable to test them psychologically and physiologically. The
time when this can be done in many lines, when the benefit that will
directly accrue will justify the necessary expenditure, may seem far
distant, but every analysis of operations, no matter how
rudimentary, is hastening the day when the underlying, permanently
valuable elements can be determined and their variations studied.

COOePERATION WILL HASTEN THE DAY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL AND
PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY OF STANDARDS.--Cooeperation in collecting and
comparing the results of motion study and time study everywhere will
do much to assist toward more ultimate determination of elements. At
the present time the problems that management submits to psychology
are too indefinite and cover too large a field to be attacked
successfully. Cooeperation between management standardizers
would mean--

1. that all management data would be available to
psychologists and physiologists.
2. that such data, being available also to all standardizers,
would prevent reduplication of results.
3. that savings would result.
4. that, from a study and comparison of the collected data a
trained synthetic mind could build up better standards than
could be built from any set of individual data.
5. Savings would result from this.
6. Inventions would also result.
7. Savings would again result from these.
8. All of these various savings could be invested in more
intensive study of elements.
9. These more valuable results would again be available to
psychologists and physiologists.

This cycle would go on indefinitely. Meantime, all would benefit
with little added cost to any. For the results of the psychological
and physiological study would be available to all, and investigators
in those lines have shown themselves ready and glad to undertake
investigations.

PURPOSE OF STANDARDIZATION.--The purpose of standardizing is the
same under all types of management; that is, it is the elimination
of waste.

STANDARDIZATION FREQUENTLY ATTEMPTED UNDER TRADITIONAL
MANAGEMENT.--In much progressive Traditional Management there is an
appreciation of the necessity of standardizing tools and equipment,
that is to say, of having these on the "duplicate part system," that
assembling may be done quickly, and repairs made without delay.

The manager notices some particularly successful man, or method,
or arrangement of tools, equipment, or the surroundings, and decides
to have a record made thereof that the success may be repeated.
These records, if made in sufficient detail, are very valuable. The
difficulty is that so often the man making the records does not
observe all the variables. Hence the very elements which caused the
success may be overlooked entirely.

VALUE OF STANDARDIZATION NOT APPRECIATED UNDER TRADITIONAL
MANAGEMENT.--It is surprising, under Traditional Management, to
note, in many cases, the years that elapse before any need for
standardization is felt. It is also surprising that, even when some
standardization has been done, its importance is seldom realized.
The new standard becomes a matter of course, and the management
fails to be impressed enough with its benefits to apply the
principle of standardization to other fields.

UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT STANDARDIZATION BECOMES CONSTANTLY
MORE IMPORTANT.--Not until Motion Study and Time Study have been
introduced can the full benefits of standardization be attained. But
as soon as the Transitory Stage of Management appears, the
importance of standardization is realized. This is brought about
largely through the records of individual outputs, which constantly
call attention to the necessity of making available to all the
methods, tools and equipment of the most successful workers.

RECORDS OF SUCCESSES BECOME MORE PROFITABLE.--The rules which
embody successful practice become more profitable as the necessity
for more detailed recording of all the variables becomes possible.
An appreciation of what scientific motion study and time study will
ultimately do affects the minds of the management until the workers
are given directions as to methods to be used, and the incentive of
extra pay for following directions.

"SYSTEMS" SHOW AN APPRECIATION OF PSYCHOLOGY.--The "Systems,"
standing orders or collections of written directions, that are
evolved at this stage have a permanent value. This is especially
true when the directions, often called "rules," contain the reason
for the rule. There is a decided awakening to the importance of
Psychology in this appeal to the reason of the worker. He is not
affronted by being forced to follow directions for which he is given
no reason and which he has no reason to believe have been
scientifically derived. These rules, in a certain typical case, are
stated in simple language, some in the form of commands, some in the
form of suggestions, and are obviously so prepared as to be
understood and obeyed by the workers with the least possible amount
of effort, opposition and time. As ample opportunity is given for
suggestions, the worker's attention and interest are held, and any
craving he may have for self-expression is gratified.

SYSTEMS PERMANENTLY USEFUL.--These systems, collections of
rules, directions or standing orders are useful even when Ultimate
Management is completely installed--

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