Mary Mills Patrick - Sextus Empiricus and Greek Scepticism
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Mary Mills Patrick >> Sextus Empiricus and Greek Scepticism
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CHAPTER XX.
_Aphasia._
We explain Aphasia as follows: The word [Greek: phasis] is used 192
in two ways, having a general and a special signification.
According to the general signification, it expresses affirmation
or negation, as "It is day" or "It is not day"; according to the
special signification, it expresses an affirmation only, and
negations are not called [Greek: phaseis]. Now Aphasia is the
opposite of [Greek: phasis] in its general signification, which,
as we said, comprises both affirmation and negation. It follows
that Aphasia is a condition of mind, according to which we say
that we neither affirm nor deny anything. It is evident from
this that we do not understand by Aphasia something that 193
inevitably results from the nature of things, but we mean that
we now find ourselves in the condition of mind expressed by it
in regard to the things that are under investigation. It is
necessary to remember that we do not say that we affirm or deny
any of those things that are dogmatically stated in regard to
the unknown, for we yield assent only to those things which
affect our feelings and oblige us to assent to them.
CHAPTER XXI.
_"Perhaps," and "It is possible," and "It may be."_
The formulae "Perhaps," and "Perhaps not," and "It is 194
possible," and "It is not possible," and "It may be," and "It
may not be," we use instead of "Perhaps it is," and "Perhaps it
is not," and "It is possible that it is," and "It is possible
that it is not," and "It may be that it is," and "It may be that
it is not." That is, we use the formula "It is not possible" for
the sake of brevity, instead of saying "It is not possible to
be," and "It may not be" instead of "It may not be that it is,"
and "Perhaps not" instead of "Perhaps it is not." Again, we do
not here dispute about words, neither do we question if the 195
formulae mean these things absolutely, but we use them loosely,
as I said before. Yet I think it is evident that these formulae
express Aphasia. For certainly the formula "Perhaps it is"
really includes that which seems to contradict it, _i.e._ the
formula "Perhaps it is not," because it does not affirm in in
regard to anything that it is really so. It is the same also in
regard to the others.
CHAPTER XXII.
[Greek: epoche] _or the Suspension of Judgment._
When I say that I suspend my judgment, I mean that I cannot 196
say which of those things presented should be believed, and
which should not be believed, showing that things appear equal
to me in respect to trustworthiness and untrustworthiness. Now
we do not affirm that they are equal, but we state what appears
to us in regard to them at the time when they present themselves
to us. [Greek: epoche] means the holding back of the opinion, so
as neither to affirm nor deny anything because of the equality
of the things in question.
CHAPTER XXIII.
_The Formula "I determine Nothing."_
In regard to the formula "I determine nothing," we say the 197
following: By "determine" we mean, not simply to speak, but to
give assent to an affirmation with regard to some unknown thing.
For it will soon be found that the Sceptic determines nothing,
not even the formula "I determine nothing," for this formula is
not a dogmatic opinion, that is an assent to something unknown,
but an expression declaring what our condition of mind is. When,
for example, the Sceptic says, "I determine nothing," he means
this: "According to my present feeling I can assert or deny
nothing dogmatically regarding the things under investigation,"
and in saying this he expresses what appears to him in reference
to the things under discussion. He does not express himself
positively, but he states what he feels.
CHAPTER XXIV.
_The Formula "Every thing is Undetermined."_
The expression "Indetermination" furthermore shows a state 198
of mind in which we neither deny nor affirm positively anything
regarding things that are investigated in a dogmatic way, that
is the things that are unknown. When then the Sceptic says
"Every thing is undetermined," he uses "is undetermined," in the
sense of "it appears undetermined to him." The words "every
thing" do not mean all existences, but those that he has
examined of the unknown things that are investigated by the
Dogmatists. By "undetermined," he means that there is no
preference in the things that are placed in opposition to each
other, or that they simply conflict with each other in respect
to trustworthiness or untrustworthiness. And as the one who 199
says "I am walking" really means "It is I that am walking," so
he who says "Every thing is undetermined" means at the same
time, according to our teachings, "as far as I am concerned," or
"as it appears to me," as if he were saying "As far as I have
examined the things that are under investigation in a dogmatic
manner, it appears to me that no one of them excels the one
which conflicts with it in trustworthiness or
untrustworthiness."
CHAPTER XXV.
_The Formula "Every thing is Incomprehensible."_
We treat the formula "Every thing is incomprehensible" in 200
the same way. For "every thing" we interpret in the same way as
above, and we supply the words "to me" so that what we say is
this: "As far as I have inspected the unknown things which are
dogmatically examined, it appears to me that every thing is
incomprehensible." This is not, however, to affirm that the
things which are examined by the Dogmatists are of such a nature
as to be necessarily incomprehensible, but one expresses his own
feeling in saying "I see that I have not thus far comprehended
any of those things because of the equilibrium of the things
that are placed in opposition to each other." Whence it seems to
me that every thing that has been brought forward to dispute our
formulae has fallen wide of the mark.
CHAPTER XXVI.
_The Formulae "I do not comprehend" and "I do not
understand."_
The formulae "I do not comprehend" and "I do not understand" 201
show a condition of mind in which the Sceptic stands aloof for
the present from asserting or denying anything in regard to the
unknown things under investigation, as is evident from what we
said before about the other formulae.
CHAPTER XXVII.
_The Formula "To place an equal Statement in opposition
to every Statement."_
Furthermore, when we say "Every statement may have an equal 202
statement placed in opposition to it," by "every," we mean all
the statements that we have examined; we do not use the word
"statement" simply, but for a statement which seeks to prove
something dogmatically about things that are unknown, and not at
all one that shows a process of reasoning from premises and
conclusions, but something which is put together in any sort of
way. We use the word "equal" in reference to trustworthiness or
untrustworthiness. "Is placed in opposition" we use instead of
the common expression "to conflict with," and we supply "as it
appears to me." When therefore one says, "It seems to me 203
that every statement which I have examined, which proves
something dogmatically, may have another statement placed in
opposition to it which also proves something dogmatically, and
which is equal to it in trustworthiness and untrustworthiness,"
this is not asserted dogmatically, but is an expression of human
feeling as it appears to the one who feels it. Some Sceptics 204
express the formula as follows: "Every statement should have an
equal one placed in opposition to it," demanding it
authoritatively thus: "Let us place in opposition to every
statement that proves something dogmatically another conflicting
statement which also seeks to prove something dogmatically, and
is equal to it in trustworthiness and untrustworthiness."
Naturally this is directed to the Sceptics, but the infinitive
should be used instead of the imperative, that is, "to oppose"
instead of "let us oppose." This formula is recommended to the 205
Sceptic, lest he should be deceived by the Dogmatists and
give up his investigations, and rashly fail of the [Greek:
ataraxia] which is thought to accompany [Greek: epoche] in
regard to everything, as we have explained above.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
_General Observations on the Formulae of the Sceptics._
We have treated of a sufficient number of these formulae for 206
an outline, especially since what we have said about those
mentioned applies also to others that we have omitted. In regard
to all the Sceptical formulae, it must be understood in advance
that we do not affirm them to be absolutely true, because we say
that they can even refute themselves, since they are themselves
included in those things to which they refer, just as cathartic
medicines not only purge the body of humors, but carry off
themselves with the humors. We say then that we use these 207
formulae, not as literally making known the things for which
they are used, but loosely, and if one wishes, inaccurately. It
is not fitting for the Sceptic to dispute about words,
especially as it contributes to our purpose to say that these
formulae have no absolute meaning; their meaning is a relative
one, that is, relative to the Sceptics. Besides, it is to be 208
remembered that we do not say them about all things in general,
but about the unknown, and things that are dogmatically
investigated, and that we say what appears to us, and that we do
not express ourselves decidedly about the nature of external
objects. By this means I think that every sophism brought
against the Sceptical formulae can be overturned. We have now 209
shown the character of Scepticism by examining its idea, its
parts, its criterion and aim, and also the Tropes of [Greek:
epoche], and by treating of the Sceptical formulae. We think it
therefore appropriate to enter briefly into the distinction
between Scepticism and the nearly related schools of philosophy
in order to more clearly understand the Sceptical School. We
will begin with the philosophy of Heraclitus.
CHAPTER XXIX.
_In what does the Sceptical School differ from the Philosophy
of Heraclitus?_
Now that this school differs from ours is evident, for 210
Heraclitus expresses himself about many unknown things
dogmatically, which we do not, as has been said. Aenesidemus and
his followers said that the Sceptical School is the way to the
philosophy of Heraclitus. They gave as a reason for this that
the statement that contradictory predicates appear to be
applicable to the same thing, leads the way to the statement
that contradictory predicates are in reality applicable to the
same thing; and as the Sceptics say that contradictory
predicates appear to be applicable to the same thing, the
Heraclitans proceed from this to the doctrine that such
predicates are in reality applicable. We reply to this that the
statement that contradictory predicates appear to be applicable
to the same thing is not a dogma of the Sceptics, but is a fact
that presents itself not only to the Sceptics, but to other
philosophers, and to all men. No one, for instance, would 211
venture to say that honey does not taste sweet to those in
health, and bitter to those who have the jaundice, so that the
Heraclitans start from a preconception common to all men, as do
we also, and perhaps the other schools of philosophy likewise.
If, however, they had attributed the origin of the statement
that contradictory predicates are present in the same thing to
any of the Sceptical teachings, as, for example, to the formula
"Every thing is incomprehensible," or "I determine nothing," or
any of the other similar ones, it may be that which they say
would follow; but since they start from that which is a common
experience, not only to us, but to other philosophers, and in
life, why should one say that our school is a path to the
philosophy of Heraclitus more than any of the other schools of
philosophy, or than life itself, as we all make use of the same
subject matter? On the other hand, the Sceptical School may not 212
only fail to help towards the knowledge of the philosophy of
Heraclitus, but may even hinder it! For the Sceptic attacks all
the dogmas of Heraclitus as having been rashly given, and
opposes on the one hand the doctrine of conflagration, and on
the other, the doctrine that contradictory predicates in reality
apply to the same thing, and in regard to every dogma of
Heraclitus he scorns his dogmatic rashness, and then, in the
manner that I have before referred to, adduces the formulae "I
do not understand" and "I determine nothing," which conflict
with the Heraclitan doctrines. It is absurd to say that this
conflicting school is a path to the very sect with which it
conflicts. It is then absurd to say that the Sceptical School is
a path to the philosophy of Heraclitus.
CHAPTER XXX.
_In what does the Sceptical School differ from the Philosophy
of Democritus?_
The philosophy of Democritus is also said to have community 213
with Scepticism, because it seems to use the same matter that we
do. For, from the fact that honey seems sweet to some and bitter
to others, Democritus reasons, it is said, that honey is neither
sweet nor bitter, and therefore he accords with the formula "No
more," which is a formula of the Sceptics. But the Sceptics and
the Democritans use the formula "No more" differently from each
other, for they emphasise the negation in the expression, but
we, the not knowing whether both of the phenomena exist or
neither one, and so we differ in this respect. The distinction,
however, becomes most evident when Democritus says that 214
atoms and empty space are real, for by real he means existing in
reality. Now, although he begins with the anomaly in phenomena,
yet, since he says that atoms and empty space really exist, it
is superfluous, I think, even to say that he differs from us.
CHAPTER XXXI.
_In what does Scepticism differ from the Cyrenaic Philosophy?_
Some say that the Cyrenaic School is the same as the 215
Sceptical, because that school also claims to comprehend only
conditions of mind. It differs, however, from it, because, while
the former makes pleasure and the gentle motion of the flesh its
aim, we make [Greek: ataraxia] ours, and this is opposed to the
aim of their school. For whether pleasure is present or not,
confusion awaits him who maintains that pleasure is an aim, as I
have shown in what I said about the aim. And then, in addition,
we suspend our judgment as far as the reasoning with regard to
external objects is concerned, but the Cyrenaics pronounce the
nature of these inscrutable.
CHAPTER XXXII.
_In what does Scepticism differ from the Philosophy of
Protagoras?_
Protagoras makes man the measure of all things, of things 216
that are that they are, and things that are not that they are
not, meaning by measure, criterion, and by things, events, that
is to say really, man is the criterion for all events, of things
that are that they are, and of things that are not that they are
not. And for that reason he accepts only the phenomena that
appear to each man, and thus he introduces relation. Therefore 217
he seems to have community with the Pyrrhoneans. He differs,
however, from them, and we shall see the difference after we
have somewhat explained how things seemed to Protagoras. He
says, for example, that matter is fluid, and as it flows,
additions are constantly made in the place of that which is
carried away; the perceptions also are arranged anew and
changed, according to the age and according to other conditions
of the body. He says also, that the reasons of all phenomena 218
are present in matter, so that matter can be all that it appears
to be to all men as far as its power is concerned. Men, however,
apprehend differently at different times, according to the
different conditions that they are in; for he that is in a
natural condition will apprehend those qualities in matter that
can appear to those who are in a natural condition, while on 219
the contrary, those who are in an unnatural condition will
apprehend those qualities that can appear to the abnormal.
Furthermore, the same reasoning would hold true in regard to
differences in age, to sleeping and waking, and each of the
other different conditions. Therefore man becomes the criterion
of things that are, for all things that appear to men exist for
men, and those things that do not appear to any one among men do
not exist. We see that he dogmatises in saying that matter is
fluid, and also in saying that the reasons for all phenomena
have their foundation in matter, while these things are unknown,
and to us are things regarding which we suspend our judgment.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
_In what does Scepticism differ from the Academic
Philosophy?_
Some say further that the Academic philosophy is the same as 220
Scepticism, therefore it seems appropriate to me to treat of
that also. There have been, as the most say, three
Academies--the most ancient one, that of Plato and his
followers; the second and middle one, that of Arcesilaus and his
followers, Arcesilaus being the pupil of Polemo; the third and
new Academy, that of Carneades and Clitomachus and their
followers; some add also a fourth, that of Philo and Charmides,
and their followers; and some count even a fifth, that of
Antiochus and his followers. Beginning then from the old
Academy, let us consider the difference between the schools of
philosophy mentioned. Now some have said that Plato was a 221
Dogmatic, others that he was a Sceptic, and others that he was
in some things a Sceptic and in some things a Dogmatic. For in
the fencing dialogues, where Socrates is introduced as either
making sport of someone or contending against the Sophists,
Plato has, they say, a fencing and sceptical character, but he
is dogmatic when he expresses himself seriously, either through
Socrates or Timaeus or any such person. In regard to those 222
who say that he is a Dogmatic, or a Dogmatic in some things and
a Sceptic in others, it would be superfluous, it seems to me, to
speak now, for they themselves grant that he is different from
us. The question as to whether he was really a Sceptic or not we
treat more fully in the Memoranda, but here we state briefly
that according to Menodotus and Aenesidemus (for these
especially defended this position) Plato dogmatises when he
expresses himself regarding ideas, and regarding the existence
of Providence, and when he states that the virtuous life is more
to be chosen than the one of vice. If he assents to these things
as true, he dogmatises; or even if he accepts them as more
probable than otherwise he departs from the sceptical character,
since he gives a preference to one thing above another in
trustworthiness or untrustworthiness; for how foreign this is to
us is evident from what we have said before. Even if when he 223
performs mental gymnastics, as they say, he expresses some
things sceptically, he is not because of this a Sceptic. For he
who dogmatises about one thing, or, in short, gives preference
to one mental image over another in trustworthiness or
untrustworthiness in respect to anything that is unknown, is a
Dogmatic in character, as Timon shows by what he said of
Xenophanes. For after having praised Xenophanes in many 224
things, and even after having dedicated his Satires to him, he
made him mourn and say--
"Would that I also might gain that mind profound,
Able to look both ways. In a treacherous path have
I been decoyed,
And still in old age am with all wisdom unwed.
For wherever I turned my view
All things were resolved into unity; all things, alway
From all sources drawn, were merged into nature the same."
Timon calls him somewhat, but not entirely, free from
vanity, when he said--
"Xenophanes somewhat free from vanity, mocker of
Homeric deceit,
Far from men he conceived a god, on all sides equal,
Above pain, a being spiritualised, or intellect."
In saying that he was somewhat free from vanity, he meant that
he was in some things free from vanity. He called him a mocker
of the Homeric deceit because he had scoffed at the deceit in
Homer. Xenophanes also dogmatised, contrary to the assumptions 225
of other men, that all things are one, and that God is grown
together with all things, that He is spherical, insensible,
unchangeable, and reasonable, whence the difference of
Xenophanes from us is easily proved. In short, from what has
been said, it is evident that although Plato expresses doubt
about some things, so long as he has expressed himself in
certain places in regard to the existence of unknown things, or
as preferring some things to others in trustworthiness, he
cannot be, it seems to me, a Sceptic. Those of the New Academy,
although they say that all things are incomprehensible, 226
differ from the Sceptics, perhaps even in saying that all things
are incomprehensible (for they assert decidedly in regard to
this, but the Sceptic thinks it possible that some things may be
comprehended), but they differ evidently still further from us
in their judgment of good and evil. For the Academicians say
that there is such a thing as good and evil, not as we say it,
but more with the conviction that that which they call good
exists than that it does not; and likewise in regard to the
evil, while we do not say anything is good or evil with the
conviction that it is probably so, but we live our lives in an
unprejudiced way in order not to be inactive. Moreover, we say
that our ideas are equal to each other in trustworthiness 227
and untrustworthiness, as far as their nature goes, while they
say that some are probable and others improbable. They make a
difference also between the improbable ones, for they believe
that some of them are only probable, others probable and
undisputed, still others probable, undisputed, and tested. As
for example, when a coiled rope is lying in a somewhat dark
room, he who comes in suddenly gets only a probable idea of it,
and thinks that it is a serpent; but it appears to be a rope 228
to him who has looked carefully around, and found out that it
does not move, and that it is of such a color, and so on,
according to an idea which is probable and undisputed. The
tested idea is like this: It is said that Hercules led Alcestis
after she was dead back again from Hades and showed her to
Admetus, and he received an idea that was probable and
undisputed regarding Alcestis. As, however, he knew that she was
dead, his mind drew back from belief and inclined to disbelief.
Now those belonging to the New Academy prefer the idea which 229
is probable and undisputed to the simply probable one. To both
of these, however, they prefer that which is probable,
undisputed, and tested. If, however, both those of the Academy
and the Sceptics say that they believe certain things, there is
an evident difference between the two schools of philosophy even
in this; for "to believe" is used in a different sense, 230
meaning, on the one hand, not to resist, but simply to accept
without strong inclination and approval, as the child is said to
believe the teacher; on the other hand, "to believe" is used to
signify assenting to something with choice, and, as it were,
with the sympathy that accompanies strong will, as the prodigal
follows the one who chooses to live a luxurious life. Therefore,
since Carneades, Clitomachus, and their followers say that they
are strongly inclined to believe that a thing is probable, and
we simply allow that it may be so without assent, we differ 231
from them, I think, in this way. We differ from the New Academy
likewise in things concerning the aim; for while the men who say
that they govern themselves according to that School avail
themselves of the idea of the probable in life, we live
according to the laws and customs, and our natural feelings, in
an unprejudiced way. We could say more regarding the distinction
between the two schools if we did not aim at brevity.
Nevertheless, Arcesilaus, who as we said was the leader and 232
chief of the Middle Academy, seems to me to have very much in
common with the Pyrrhonean teachings, so that his school and
ours are almost one. For neither does one find that he expressed
an opinion about the existence or non-existence of anything, nor
does he prefer one thing to another as regards trustworthiness
or untrustworthiness; he suspends his judgment regarding all
things, and the aim of his philosophy is [Greek: epoche], which
is accompanied by [Greek: ataraxia], and this agrees with what
we have said. But he calls the particular instances of 233
[Greek: epoche] _bona_, and the particular instances of assent
_mala_. The difference is that we say these things according to
what appears to us, and not affirmatively, while he says them as
if speaking of realities, that is, he says that [Greek: epoche]
is in itself good, and assent an evil. If we are to believe also
the things that are said about him, he appeared at first 234
sight to be a Pyrrhonean, but he was in truth a Dogmatic, for he
used to test his companions by the method of doubt to see
whether they were gifted enough to take in Plato's dogmas, so
that he appeared to be a Sceptic, but at the same time he
communicated the doctrines of Plato to those of his companions
who were gifted. Hence Ariston also said about him--
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