Mary Mills Patrick - Sextus Empiricus and Greek Scepticism
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Mary Mills Patrick >> Sextus Empiricus and Greek Scepticism
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[1] _Hyp._ I. 25.
[2] _Hyp._ I. 26.
[3] _Hyp._ I. 26.
[4] Diog. IX. 11, 107.
[5] _Hyp._ I. 29.
The Sceptic in seeking ataraxia in the things of opinion, does
not entirely escape from suffering from his sensations. He is
not wholly undisturbed, for he is sometimes cold and hungry, and
so on.[1] He claims, nevertheless, that he suffers less than the
dogmatist, who is beset with two kinds of suffering, one from
the feelings themselves, and also from the conviction that they
are by nature an evil.[2] To the Sceptic nothing is in itself
either an evil or a good, and so he thinks that "he escapes from
difficulties easier."[3] For instance, he who considers riches a
good in themselves, is unhappy in the loss of them, and in
possession of them is in fear of losing them, while the Sceptic,
remembering the Sceptical saying "No more," is untroubled in
whatever condition he may be found, as the loss of riches is no
more an evil than the possession of them is a good.[4] For he
who considers anything good or bad by nature is always troubled,
and when that which seemed good is not present with him, he
thinks that he is tortured by that which is by nature bad, and
follows after what he thinks to be good. Having acquired it,
however, he is not at rest, for his reason tells him that a
sudden change may deprive him of this thing that he considers a
good.[5] The Sceptic, however, endeavours neither to avoid nor
seek anything eagerly.[6]
[1] _Hyp._ I. 30.
[2] _Hyp._ I. 30.
[3] _Hyp._ I. 30; Diog. IX. 11, 61.
[4] _Adv. Math._ XI. 146-160.
[5] _Hyp._ I. 27.
[6] _Hyp._ I. 28.
Ataraxia came to the Sceptic as success in painting the foam on
a horse's mouth came to Apelles the painter. After many attempts
to do this, and many failures, he gave up in despair, and threw
the sponge at the picture that he had used to wipe the colors
from the painting with. As soon as it touched the picture it
produced a representation of the foam.[1] Thus the Sceptics were
never able to attain to ataraxia by examining the anomaly
between the phenomena and the things of thought, but it came to
them of its own accord just when they despaired of finding it.
The intellectual preparation for producing ataraxia, consists in
placing arguments in opposition to each other, both in regard to
phenomena, and to things of the intellect. By placing the
phenomenal in opposition to the phenomenal, the intellectual to
the intellectual, and the phenomenal to the intellectual, and
_vice versa_, the present to the present, past, and future, one
will find that no argument exists that is incontrovertible. It
is not necessary to accept any statement whatever as true, and
consequently a state of [Greek: epoche] may always be
maintained.[2] Although ataraxia concerns things of the opinion,
and must be preceded by the intellectual process described
above, it is not itself a function of the intellect, or any
subtle kind of reasoning, but seems to be rather a unique form
of moral perfection, leading to happiness, or is itself
happiness.
[1] _Hyp._ I. 28, 29.
[2] _Hyp._ I. 32-35.
It was the aim of Scepticism to know nothing, and to assert
nothing in regard to any subject, but at the same time not to
affirm that knowledge on all subjects is impossible, and
consequently to have the attitude of still seeking. The
standpoint of Pyrrhonism was materialistic. We find from the
teachings of Sextus that he affirmed the non-existence of the
soul,[1] or the ego, and denied absolute existence
altogether.[2] The introductory statements of Diogenes regarding
Pyrrhonism would agree with this standpoint.[3]
There is no criterion of truth in Scepticism. We cannot prove
that the phenomena represent objects, or find out what the
relation of phenomena to objects is. There is no criterion to
tell us which one is true of all the different representations
of the same object, and of all the varieties of sensation that
arise through the many phases of relativity of the conditions
which control the character of the phenomena.
Every effort to find the truth can deal only with phenomena, and
absolute reality can never be known.
[1] _Adv. Math._ VII. 55; _Hyp._ II. 32.
[2] _Adv. Math._ XI. 140.
[3] Diog. IX. 11, 61.
CHAPTER III.
_The Sceptical Tropes_.
The exposition of the Tropes of Pyrrhonism constitutes
historically and philosophically the most important part of the
writings of Sextus Empiricus. These Tropes represent the sum
total of the wisdom of the older Sceptical School, and were held
in high respect for centuries, not only by the Pyrrhoneans, but
also by many outside the narrow limits of that School. In the
first book of the _Hypotyposes_ Sextus gives two classes of
Tropes, those of [Greek: epoche] and the eight Tropes of
Aenesidemus against Aetiology.
The Tropes of [Greek: epoche] are arranged in groups of ten,
five and two, according to the period of the Sceptical School to
which they belong; the first of these groups is historically the
most important, or the Ten Tropes of [Greek: epoche], as these
are far more closely connected with the general development of
Scepticism, than the later ones. By the name [Greek: tropos] or
Trope, the Sceptic understood a manner of thought, or form of
argument, or standpoint of judgement. It was a term common in
Greek philosophy, used in this sense, from the time of
Aristotle.[1] The Stoics, however, used the word with a
different meaning from that attributed to it by the Sceptics.[2]
Stephanus and Fabricius translate it by the Latin word
_modus_[3] and [Greek: tropos] also is often used
interchangeably with the word [Greek: logos] by Sextus, Diogenes
Laertius, and others; sometimes also as synonymous with [Greek:
topos],[4] and [Greek: typos] is found in the oldest edition of
Sextus.[5] Diogenes defines the word as the standpoint, or
manner of argument, by which the Sceptics arrived at the
condition of doubt, in consequence of the equality of
probabilities, and he calls the Tropes, the ten Tropes of
doubt.[6] All writers on Pyrrhonism after the time of
Aenesidemus give the Tropes the principal place in their
treatment of the subject. Sextus occupies two thirds of the
first book of the _Hypotyposes_ in stating and discussing them;
and about one fourth of his presentation of Scepticism is
devoted to the Tropes by Diogenes. In addition to these two
authors, Aristocles the Peripatetic refers to them in his attack
on Scepticism.[7] Favorinus wrote a book entitled _Pyrrhonean
Tropes_, and Plutarch one called _The Ten ([Greek: topoi]) Topes
of Pyrrho_.[8] Both of these latter works are lost.
[1] Pappenheim _Erlauterung Pyrrh. Grundzugen_, p. 35.
[2] Diog I. 76; _Adv. Math._ VIII. 227.
[3] Fabricius, Cap. XIV. 7.
[4] _Hyp._ I. 36.
[5] Fabricius on _Hyp._ I. 36; Cap. XIV. G.
[6] Diog. IX. 11, 79-108.
[7] Aristocles _Euseb. praep. ev._ X. 14, 18.
[8] Fabricius on _Hyp._ I. 36.
All authorities unite in attributing to Aenesidemus the work of
systematizing and presenting to the world the ten Tropes of
[Greek: epoche]. He was the first to conceive the project of
opposing an organized philosophical system of Pyrrhonism to the
dogmatism of his contemporaries.[1] Moreover, the fact that
Diogenes introduces the Tropes into his life of Pyrrho, does not
necessarily imply that he considered Pyrrho their author, for
Diogenes invariably combines the teachings of the followers of a
movement with those of the founders themselves; he gives these
Tropes after speaking of Aenesidemus' work entitled _Pyrrhonean
Hypotyposes_, and apparently quotes from this book, in giving at
least a part of his presentation of Pyrrhonism, either directly
or through, the works of others. Nietzsche proposes a correction
of the text of Diogenes IX. 11, 79, which would make him quote the
Tropes from a book by Theodosius,[2] author of a commentary on
the works of Theodas. No writer of antiquity claims for the
Tropes an older source than the books of Aenesidemus, to whom
Aristocles also attributes them.[3] They are not mentioned in
Diogenes' life of Timon, the immediate disciple of Pyrrho.
Cicero has no knowledge of them, and does not refer to them in
his discussion of Scepticism.
[1] Compare Saisset _Op. cit._ p. 78.
[2] Brochard _Op. cit._ 254, Note 4.
[3] Aristocles _Eus. praep. ev._ XIV. 18. 8.
Aenesidemus was undoubtedly the first to formulate these Tropes,
but many things tend to show that they resulted, in reality,
from the gradual classification of the results of the teachings
of Pyrrho, in the subsequent development of thought from his own
time to that of Aenesidemus. The ideas contained in the Tropes
were not original with Aenesidemus, but are more closely
connected with the thought of earlier times. The decidedly
empirical character of the Tropes proves this connection, for
the eight Tropes of Aetiology, which were original with
Aenesidemus, bear a far stronger dialectic stamp, thus showing a
more decided dialectic influence of the Academy than is found in
the Tropes of [Greek: epoche]. Many of the illustrations given
of the Tropes also, testify to a time of greater antiquity than
that of Aenesidemus. The name Trope was well known in ancient
times, and the number ten reminds us of the ten opposing
principles of Pythagoras, and the ten categories of Aristotle,
the fourth of which was the same as the eighth Trope. The
terminology, however, with very few exceptions, points to a
later period than that of Pyrrho. Zeller points out a number of
expressions in both Diogenes' and Sextus' exposition of the
Tropes, which could not date back farther than the time of
Aenesidemus.[1] One of the most striking features of the whole
presentation of the Tropes, especially as given by Sextus, is
their mosaic character, stamping them not as the work of one
person, but as a growth, and also an agglutinous growth, lacking
very decidedly the symmetry of thought that the work of one mind
would have shown.
[1] Zeller _Op. cit._ p. 25.
At the time of the separation of Pyrrhonism from the Academy, no
other force was as strong in giving life to the school as the
systematic treatment by Aenesidemus of the Ten Tropes of [Greek:
epoche]. The reason of this is evident. It was not that the
ideas of the Sceptical Tropes were original with Aenesidemus,
but because a definite statement of belief is always a far more
powerful influence than principles which are vaguely understood
and accepted. There is always, however, the danger to the
Sceptic, in making a statement even of the principles of
Scepticism, that the psychological result would be a dogmatic
tendency of mind, as we shall see later was the case, even with
Aenesidemus himself. That the Sceptical School could not escape
the accusation of dogmatizing, from the Dogmatics, even in
stating the grounds of their Scepticism, we know from
Diogenes.[1] To avoid this dogmatic tendency of the ten Tropes,
Sextus makes the frequent assertion that he does not affirm
things to be absolutely true, but states them as they appear to
him, and that they may be otherwise from what he has said.[2]
[1] Diog. IX. 11, 102.
[2] _Hyp._ I. 4, 24.
Sextus tells us that "Certain Tropes, ten in number, for
producing the state of [Greek: epoche] have been handed down
from the older Sceptics."[1] He refers to them in another work
as the "Tropes of Aenesidemus."[2] There is no evidence that the
substance of these Tropes was changed after the time of
Aenesidemus, although many of the illustrations given by Sextus
must have been of a later date, added during the two centuries
that elapsed between the time of Aenesidemus and Sextus. In
giving these Tropes Sextus does not claim to offer a systematic
methodical classification, and closes his list of them, in their
original concise form, with the remark, "We make this order
ourselves."[3] The order is given differently by Diogenes, and
also by Favorinus.[4] The Trope which Sextus gives as the tenth
is the fifth given by Diogenes, the seventh by Sextus is the
eighth given by Diogenes, the fifth by Sextus, the seventh by
Diogenes, the tenth by Diogenes, the eighth by Sextus. Diogenes
says that the one he gives as the ninth Favorinus calls the
eighth, and Sextus and Aenesidemus the tenth. This statement
does not correspond with the list of the Tropes which Sextus
gives, proving that Diogenes took some other text than that of
Sextus as his authority.[5] The difference in the order of the
Tropes shows, also, that the order was not considered a matter
of great importance. There is a marked contrast in the spirit of
the two presentations of the Tropes given by Sextus and
Diogenes. The former gives them not only as an orator, but as
one who feels that he is defending his own cause, and the school
of which he is the leader, against mortal enemies, while
Diogenes relates them as an historian.
[1] _Hyp._ I. 36.
[2] _Adv. Math._ VII. 345.
[3] _Hyp._ I. 38.
[4] Diog. IX. 11, 87.
[5] Diog. IX. 11, 87.
Pappenheim tries to prove[1] that Aenesidemus originally gave
only nine Tropes in his _Pyrrhonean Hypotyposes_, as Aristocles
mentions only nine in referring to the Tropes of Aenesidemus,
and that the tenth was added later. Had this been the case,
however, the fact would surely have been mentioned either by
Diogenes or Sextus, who both refer to the ten Tropes of
Aenesidemus.
The Tropes claim to prove that the character of phenomena is so
relative and changeable, that certain knowledge cannot be based
upon them, and as we have shown, there is no other criterion of
knowledge for the Sceptic than phenomena.[2] All of the Tropes,
except the tenth, are connected with sense-perception, and
relate to the difference of the results obtained through the
senses under different circumstances. They may be divided into
two classes, _i.e._, those based upon differences of our
physical organism, and those based upon external differences. To
the first class belong the first, second, third and fourth; to
the second class, the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth, and also
the ninth. The eighth, or that of relation, is applied
objectively both by Sextus and Diogenes in their treatment of
the Tropes, and is not used for objects of thought alone, but
principally to show the relation of outward objects to each
other. The tenth is the only one which has a moral significance,
and it has also a higher subjective value than the others; it
takes its arguments from an entirely different sphere of
thought, and deals with metaphysical and religious
contradictions in opinion, and with the question of good and
evil. That this Trope is one of the oldest, we know from its
distinct mention in connection with the foundation theories of
Pyrrho, by Diogenes.[3] In treating of the subjective reasons
for doubt as to the character of external reality, the Sceptics
were very near the denial of all outward reality, a point,
however, which they never quite reached.
[1] Pappenheim, _Die Tropen der Griechen_, p. 23.
[2] _Hyp._ I. 22.
[3] Diog. IX. 11, 61.
There is evidently much of Sextus' own thought mixed with the
illustrations of the Tropes, but it is impossible to separate
the original parts from the material that was the common
property of the Sceptical School. Many of these illustrations
show, however, perfect familiarity with the scientific and
medical teachings of the time. Before entering upon his
exposition of the Tropes, Sextus gives them in the short concise
form in which they must first have existed[1]--
(i) Based upon the variety of animals.
(ii) Based upon the differences between men.
(iii) Based upon differences in the constitution of
the sense organs.
(iv) Based upon circumstances.
(v) Based upon position, distance and place.
(vi) Based upon mixtures.
(vii) Based upon the quantities and constitutions
of objects.
(viii) Relation.
(ix) Based upon frequency or rarity of occurences.
(x) Based upon systems, customs and laws,
mythical beliefs, and dogmatic opinions.
[1] _Hyp._ I. 36-38.
Although Sextus is careful not to dogmatise regarding the
arrangement of the Tropes, yet there is in his classification of
them a regular gradation, from the arguments based upon
differences in animals to those in man, first considering the
latter in relation to the physical constitution, and then to
circumstances outside of us, and finally the treatment of
metaphysical and moral differences.
_The First Trope_.[1] That the same mental representations are
not found in different animals, may be inferred from their
differences in constitution resulting from their different
origins, and from the variety in their organs of sense. Sextus
takes up the five senses in order, giving illustrations to prove
the relative results of the mental representations in all of
them, as for example the subjectivity of color[2] and sound.[3]
All knowledge of objects through the senses is relative and not
absolute. Sextus does not, accordingly, confine the
impossibility of certain knowledge to the qualities that Locke
regards as secondary, but includes also the primary ones in this
statement.[4] The form and shape of objects as they appear to us
may be changed by pressure on the eyeball. Furthermore, the
character of reflections in mirrors depend entirely on their
shape, as the images in concave mirrors are very different from
those in convex ones; and so in the same way as the eyes of
animals are of different shapes, and supplied with different
fluids, the ideas of dogs, fishes, men and grasshoppers must be
very different.[5]
[1] _Hyp._. I. 40-61.
[2] _Hyp._. I. 44-46.
[3] _Hyp._. I. 50.
[4] _Hyp._. I. 47.
[5] _Hyp._. I. 49.
In discussing the mental representations of animals of different
grades of intelligence, Sextus shows a very good comprehension
of the philogenetic development of the organs of sense, and
draws the final conclusion that external objects are regarded
differently by animals, according to their difference in
constitution.[1] These differences in the ideas which different
animals have of the same objects are demonstrated by their
different tastes, as the things desired by some are fatal to
others.[2] The practical illustrations given of this result show
a familiarity with natural history, and cognizance of the tastes
and habits of many animals,[3] but were probably few of them
original with Sextus, unless perhaps in their application; that
this train of reasoning was the common property of the Sceptic
School, we know from the fact that Diogenes begins his
exposition of the first Trope in a way similar to that of
Sextus.[4] His illustrations are, however, few and meagre
compared with those of Sextus, and the scientific facts used by
both of them may mostly be found in other authors of antiquity
given in a similar way.[5] The logical result of the reasoning
used to explain the first Trope, is that we cannot compare the
ideas of the animals with each other, nor with our own; nor can
we prove that our ideas are more trustworthy than those of the
animals.[6] As therefore an examination of ideas is impossible,
any decided opinion about their trustworthiness is also
impossible, and this Trope leads to the suspension of judgment
regarding external objects, or to [Greek: epoche.][7]
[1] _Hyp._. I. 54.
[2] _Hyp._. I. 55.
[3] _Hyp._. I. 55-59.
[4] Diog. IX. 11, 79-80.
[5] Pappenheim _Erlauterung Pyrr. Grundzuege Par_. 41.
[6] _Hyp_. I. 59.
[7] _Hyp_. I. 61.
After reaching this conclusion, Sextus introduces a long chapter
to prove that animals can reason. There is no reference to this
in Diogenes, but there is other testimony to show that it was a
favourite line of argument with the Sceptics.[1] Sextus,
however, says that his course of reasoning is different from
that of most of the Sceptics on the subject,[2] as they usually
applied their arguments to all animals, while he selected only
one, namely the dog.[3] This chapter is full of sarcastic
attacks on the Dogmatics, and contains the special allusion to
the Stoics as the greatest opponents of the Sceptics, which has
been before referred to.[4]
Sextus claims with a greater freedom of diction than in some
apparently less original chapters, and with a wealth of special
illustrations, that the dog is superior to man in acuteness of
perception,[5] that he has the power of choice, and possesses an
art, that of hunting,[6] and, also, is not deprived of
virtue,[7] as the true nature of virtue is to show justice to
all, which the dog does by guarding loyally those who are kind
to him, and keeping off those who do evil.[8] The reasoning
power of this animal is proved by the story taken from
Chrysippus, of the dog that came to a meeting of three roads in
following a scent. After seeking the scent in vain in two of the
roads, he takes the third road without scenting it as a result
of a quick process of thought, which proves that he shares in
the famous dialectic of Chrysippus,[9] the five forms of [Greek:
_anapodeiktoi logoi_,] of which the dog chooses the fifth.
Either _A_ or _B_ or _C_, not _A_ or _B,_ therefore _C_.
[1] _Hyp_. I. 238.
[2] Compare Brochard _Op. cit._ 256.
[3] _Hyp_. I. 62-63.
[4] _Hyp_. I. 65.
[5] _Hyp_. I. 64.
[6] _Hyp_. I. 66.
[7] _Hyp_. I. 67.
[8] _Hyp_. I. 67.
[9] _Hyp_. I. 69; _Hyp_. II. 166; Diog. VII. 1, 79.
The dog and other irrational animals may also possess spoken
language, as the only proof that we have to the contrary, is the
fact that we cannot understand the sounds that they make.[1] We
have an example in this chapter of the humor of Sextus, who
after enlarging on the perfect character of the dog, remarks,
"For which reason it seems to me some philosophers have honoured
themselves with the name of this animal,"[2] thus making a
sarcastic allusion to the Cynics, especially Antisthenes.[3]
[1] _Hyp_. I. 74.
[2] _Hyp_. I. 72.
[3] Diog. VI. 1, 13.
_The Second Trope_. Passing on to the second Trope, Sextus aims
to prove that even if we leave the differences of the mental
images of animals out of the discussion, there is not a
sufficient unanimity in the mental images of human beings to
allow us to base any assertions upon them in regard to the
character of external objects.[1] He had previously announced
that he intended to oppose the phenomenal to the intellectual
"in any way whatever,"[2] so he begins here by referring to the
two parts of which man is said to be composed, the soul and the
body, and proceeds to discuss the differences among men in
sense-perception and in opinion.[3] Most of the illustrations
given of differences in sense-perception are medical ones; of
the more general of these I will note the only two which are
also given by Diogenes in his exposition of this Trope,[4] viz.,
Demophon, Alexander's table waiter, who shivered in the sun, and
Andron the Argive, who was so free from thirst that he travelled
through the desert of Libya without seeking a drink. Some have
reasoned from the presence of the first of these illustrations
in the exposition of the Tropes, that a part of this material at
least goes back to the time of Pyrrho, as Pyrrho from his
intimacy with Alexander, when he accompanied him to India, had
abundant opportunities to observe the peculiarities of his
servant Demophon.[5] The illustration of Andron the Argive is
taken from Aristotle, according to Diogenes.[6]
[1] _Hyp_. I. 79.
[2] _Hyp._ I. 8.
[3] _Hyp._ I. 80.
[4] Diog. IX. 11, 80-81.
[5] Compare _Pyrrhon et le Scepticism primitive, Revue
phil._, Paris 1885, No. 5; Victor Brochard, p. 521.
[6] Diog. IX. 11, 81.
Passing on to differences of opinion, we have another example of
the sarcastic humor of Sextus, as he refers to the [Greek:
physiognomonike sophia][1] as the authority for believing that
the body is a type of the soul. As the bodies of men differ, so
the souls also probably differ. The differences of mind among
men is not referred to by Diogenes, except in the general
statement that they choose different professions; while Sextus
elaborates this point, speaking of the great differences in
opposing schools of philosophy, and in the objects of choice and
avoidance, and sources of pleasure for different men.[2] The
poets well understand this marked difference in human desires,
as Homer says,
"One man enjoys this, another enjoys that."
Sextus also quotes the beautiful lines of Pindar,[3]
"One delights in getting honours and crowns through
stormfooted horses,
Others in passing life in rooms rich in gold,
Another safe travelling enjoys, in a swift ship,
on a wave of the sea."
[1] _Hyp._ I. 85.
[2] _Hyp._ I. 87-89.
[3] _Hyp._ I. 86.
_The Third Trope_. The third Trope limits the argument to the
sense-perceptions of one man, a Dogmatic, if preferred, or to
one whom the Dogmatics consider wise,[1] and states that as the
ideas given by the different sense organs differ radically in a
way that does not admit of their being compared with each other,
they furnish no reliable testimony regarding the nature of
objects.[2] "Each of the phenomena perceived by us seems to
present itself in many forms, as the apple, smooth, fragrant
brown and sweet." The apple was evidently the ordinary example
given for this Trope, for Diogenes uses the same, but in a much
more condensed form, and not with equal understanding of the
results to be deduced from it.[3] The consequence of the
incompatibility of the mental representations produced through
the several sense organs by the apple, may be the acceptance of
either of the three following propositions: (i) That only those
qualities exist in the apple which we perceive. (ii) That more
than these exist. (iii) That even those perceived do not
exist.[4] Accordingly, any experience which can give rise to
such different views regarding outward objects, cannot be relied
upon as a testimony concerning them.
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