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21. In this manner both factions, exasperated to the highest
degree, and expecting no mercy on either part, gave vent to their fury
in several engagements. The forces on the side of young Ma'rius, who
now succeeded his father in command, were the most numerous, but those
of Sylla better united, and more under subordination. 22. Carbo, who
commanded for Ma'rius in the field, sent eight legions to Praenes'te,
to relieve his colleague, but they were met by Pompey, afterwards
surnamed the Great, in a defile, who slew many of them, and dispersed
the rest. Carbo soon after engaged Metel'lus, but was overcome, with
the loss of ten thousand slain, and six thousand taken prisoners. 23.
In consequence, Urba'nus, one of the consuls, killed himself, and
Carbo fled to Africa, where, after wandering a long time, he was at
last delivered up to Pompey, who, to please Sylla, ordered him to be
beheaded. 24. Sylla, now become undisputed master of his country,
entered Rome at the head of his army. Happy, had he supported in peace
the glory which he had acquired in war; or, had he ceased to live when
he ceased to conquer!

25. Eight thousand men, who had escaped the general carnage,
surrendered themselves to the conqueror; he ordered them to be put
into the Villa Pub'lica, a large house in the Campus Mar'tius; and, at
the same time, convoked the senate: there, without discovering the
least emotion, he spoke with great fluency of his own exploits, and,
in the mean time, gave private directions that all those wretches whom
he had confined, should be slain. 26. The senate, amazed at the horrid
outcries of the sufferers, at first thought that the city was given up
to plunder; but Sylla, with an unembarrassed air, informed them, that
it was only some criminals who were punished by his order, and that
the senate ought not to make themselves uneasy at their fate. 27. The
day after he proscribed forty senators, and sixteen hundred knights;
and after an intermission of two days, forty senators more, with an
infinite number of the richest citizens. 28. He next resolved to
invest himself with the dictatorship, and that for a perpetuity; and
thus uniting all civil as well as military power in his own person, he
thought he might thence give an air of justice to every oppression.
29. Thus he continued to govern with capricious tyranny, none daring
to resist his power, until, contrary to the expectation of all
mankind, he laid down the dictatorship, after having held it not quite
three years.

[Illustration: Sylla reproaching the little image of Apollo with his
defeat.]

30 After this, he retired into the country, and abandoned himself to
debauchery; but he did not long survive his abdication; he was seized
with a horrible distemper, and died a loathsome and mortifying object,
and a melancholy proof of the futility of human ambition.[5]

The character of Sylla exhibits a singular compound of great and mean
qualities. Superstition was one of its features. It is said that
having suffered a defeat in the course of the Social War, in Italy, he
drew from his bosom a little image of Apollo, which he had stolen from
the temple of Delphi, and had ever since carried about him when
engaged in war. Kissing it with great devotion, he expostulated with
the god, for having brought him to perish dishonourably, with his
countrymen, at the gates of his native city, after having raised him
by many victories to such a height of glory and greatness.


_Questions for Examination_.

1. What were the first acts of Sylla?

2. What became of Marius?

3. To what dangers was he exposed?

4. Was an attempt made on his life?

5. How did the governor treat the fugitive general?

6. What ingratitude was shown to Marius?

7. What was his reply?

8. From what African prince did he ask aid?

9. Was it granted?

10. What opportunity was taken by the Marian party to renew the
struggle?

11. To what scruple did Marius pretend?

12. What proves it a pretence?

13. What cruelties were practised by Marius?

14. What laws did he change? 15. How did Marius die?

16. How did Sylla act when he learned the news of the change?

17. What caused a tumult in Cinna's army?

18. How did it end?

19. What artifice was practised on Scipio?

20. What was the result?

21. Describe the relative condition of the rival forces?

22. Did Pompey obtain any victory?

23. What was the consequence?

24. Which faction finally prevailed?

25. What massacre was perpetrated by Sylla?

26. How did he excuse it? 27. Were these his only cruelties?

28. What magistracy did Sylla usurp?

29. How did he govern?

30. In what manner did the tyranny of Sylla terminate?

FOOTNOTES:

[1] So astonished was Jugur'tha at the mercenary disposition
discovered by the Romans, that he is said to have exclaimed, on
leaving the city, "Oh, Rome! thou wouldst thyself be sold, could a
chapman be found to purchase thee."

[2] It has been said with great truth, that "the wicked have no
friends." Jugur'tha experienced this. Bomil'car, who professed the
warmest attachment to Jugur'tha, was gained over by the proconsul
Metel'lus to persuade his master, that submission to the Romans was
absolutely necessary. Jugur'tha accordingly sent an embassy to the
proconsul, professing his readiness to submit to any terms. Upon this
he was required to send to the Romans 200,000 pounds weight of silver,
all his elephants, a certain number of horses and arms, and all
deserters. The king complied exactly with these hard conditions; but
after thus weakening his resources, he found himself still obliged to
continue the war, or submit to such farther impositions as would have
endangered, not only his crown, but his life.

[3] Never did any one more deservedly suffer than this treacherous and
cruel man.

[4] This king incurred the resentment of the Romans by making war on
some of their allies, and by putting Op'pius and Aquil'ius to death.
Upbraiding the Romans with their avarice and corruption, he caused
melted gold to be poured down the throat of the latter.

[5] Two events, important in the history of Rome, occurred about this
time. Serto'rius, a Roman general, in Spain, had rebelled against the
government of Syl'la, and defeated every army sent against him, till
Pompey took the command; and even then the result appeared doubtful,
till Serto'rius, being assassinated by his own officers put an end to
the war. Spar'tacus, a gladiator, having escaped from confinement, and
assembled a number of his followers, commenced what is called the
second Servile War. His army gradually increasing, he became a
formidable enemy to the Roman state; overthrew the praetors and consuls
sent against him; but was at length defeated by Crassus, and the
remains of his army cut in pieces by Pompey, who met them on his
return from Spain.

* * * * *




CHAPTER XIX.

FROM THE PERPETUAL DICTATORSHIP OF SYLLA TO THE TRIUMVIRATE OF CAESAR,
POMPEY, AND CRASSUS.--U.C. 680.


With Tully she her wide reviving light
To senates holds, a Catiline confounds.
And saves awhile from Caesar sinking Rome.--_Thomson_.

1. Upon the death of Sylla, the jealousies of Pompey and Crassus, the
two most powerful men in the empire, began to excite fresh
dissensions. Pompey was the most beloved general, but Crassus the
richest man in Rome.

2. The first opportunity that was offered of discovering their mutual
jealousy, was upon disbanding their troops. Neither chose to begin; so
that the most fatal consequences were likely to arise from their
dissension. At length Crassus, stifling his resentment, laid down his
command; and the other followed his example immediately after. 3.
The next trial between them was, who should be foremost in obtaining
the favour of the people. Crassus entertained the populace at a
thousand tables, distributed corn to the families of the poor, and fed
the greatest part of the citizens for nearly three months. Pompey, on
the other hand, laboured to abrogate the laws made against the
authority of the people by Sylla; restored to the knights the power of
judging, which had been formerly granted them by Gracchus; and gave
back to the tribunes all their former privileges. 4. Thus each gave
his private aims an appearance of zeal for the public good; so that
what was in reality ambition in both, took with one the name of
liberality; with the other, that of a love of freedom.

5. An expedition, in which Pompey cleared the Mediterranean, which was
infested by pirates, having added greatly to his reputation, the
tribunes of the people hoped it would be easy to advance their
favourite still higher. 6. Man'lius, therefore, one of the number,
preferred a law, that all the armies of the empire, the government of
Asia, and the management of the war which was renewed against
Mithrida'tes, should be committed to Pompey alone. The law passed,
with little opposition, and the decree was confirmed.

7. Being thus appointed to the command of that important war, he
departed for Asia. 8. Mithrida'tes had been obliged by Lucul'lus to
take refuge in Lesser Armenia, and thither that general was preparing
to follow him, when his whole army abandoned him; so that it remained
for Pompey to terminate the war, which he effected with great ease and
expedition, adding a large extent of dominion to the Roman empire, and
returning to Rome in triumph at the head of his conquering army.

9. But the victories of Pompey rather served to heighten the glory
than to increase the power of Rome; they made it more a glaring object
of ambition, and exposed its liberties to greater danger. Those
liberties, indeed, seemed devoted to ruin on every side; for, even
while he was pursuing his conquests abroad, Rome was at the verge of
ruin from a conspiracy at home. 10. This conspiracy was projected and
carried on by Ser'gius Cat'iline, a patrician by birth, who resolved
to build his own power on the downfall of his country. 11. He was
singularly formed, both by art and nature, to conduct a conspiracy: he
was possessed of courage equal to the most desperate attempts, and of
eloquence to give a colour to his ambition: ruined in his
fortunes, profligate in his manners, vigilant in pursuing his aims, he
was insatiable after wealth, only with a view to lavish it on his
guilty pleasures. 12. Cat'iline having contracted debts in consequence
of such an ill-spent life, was resolved to extricate himself from them
by any means, however unlawful. Accordingly, he assembled about thirty
of his debauched associates, and informed them of his aims, his hopes,
and his settled plans of operations. 13. It was resolved among them,
that a general insurrection should be raised throughout Italy, the
different parts of which he assigned to different leaders. Rome was to
be fired at several places at once; and Cat'iline, at the head of an
army raised in Etru'ria, was, in the general confusion, to possess
himself of the city, and massacre all the senators. Len'tulus, one of
his profligate assistants, who had been praetor, or judge in the city,
was to preside in their general councils; Cethe'gus, a man who
sacrificed the possession of great present power to the hopes of
gratifying his revenge against Cicero,[1] was to direct the massacre
through the city; and Cas'sius was to conduct those who fired it.

14. But the vigilance of Ci'cero being the chief obstacle to their
designs, Catiline was very desirous to see him taken off before he
left Rome; upon which two knights of the company undertook to kill him
the next morning in his bed, in an early visit, on pretence of
business. 15. But the meeting was no sooner over, than Ci'cero had
information of all that passed in it; for, by the intrigues of a woman
named Ful'via, he had gained over Cu'rius, her lover, one of the
conspirators, to send him a punctual account of all their
deliberations. 16. Having taken proper precautions to guard himself
against the designs of his morning visitors, who were punctual to the
appointment, he next took care to provide for the defence of the city;
when, assembling the senate, he consulted what was best to be done in
such a time of danger.

[Illustration: Curius, disclosing Catiline's conspiracy to Fulvia.]

17. The first step taken was to offer considerable rewards for farther
discoveries, and then to prepare for the defence of the state.
18. Cat'iline, to show how well he could dissemble, or justify any
crime, went boldly to the senate, declaring his innocence;[2] but,
when confronted by the eloquence of Ci'cero, he hastily withdrew,
declaring aloud, that since he was denied a vindication of himself,
and driven headlong into rebellion by his enemies, he would extinguish
the flame which was raised about him in universal ruin. 19. After a
short conference with Len'tulus and Cethe'gus, he left Rome by night,
with a small retinue, to hasten towards Etru'ria, where Man'lius, one
of the conspirators, was raising an army to support him.[3]

20. In the mean time Ci'cero took proper precautions to secure all
those of the conspiracy who remained in Rome. Len'tulus, Cethe'gus,
Cas'sius, and several others, were put into confinement; and soon
after strangled in prison.

21. While his associates were put to death in the city, Cat'iline had
raised an army of twelve thousand men, of which a fourth part only
were completely armed, the rest being furnished with such weapons as
chance afforded; darts, lances, and clubs. 22. He refused, at first,
to enlist slaves, who flocked to him in great numbers, trusting to the
strength of the conspiracy; but upon the approach of the consul, who
was sent against him, and upon the arrival of the news that his
confederates were put to death, the face of affairs altered. 23.
His first attempt, therefore, was, by long marches, to make his escape
over the Appenines into Gaul; but in this his hopes were disappointed;
all the passes being guarded by an army superior to his own. 24. Being
thus hemmed in on every side, and seeing all things desperate, with
nothing left him but either to die or conquer, he resolved to make one
vigorous effort against that army which pursued him. Anto'nius, the
consul, being sick, the command devolved upon Petrei'us, who, after a
fierce and bloody action in which he lost a considerable part of his
best troops, put Cat'iline's forces to the rout, and destroyed his
whole army.[4]

25. The extinction of this conspiracy seemed only to leave an open
theatre for the ambition of the great men to display itself in. Pompey
was now returned in triumph from conquering the east, as he had before
been victorious in Europe and Africa.

26. Crassus was the richest man in Rome, and next to Pompey, possessed
the greatest authority; his party in the senate was even greater than
that of his rival, and the envy raised against him was less. He and
Pompey had long been disunited by an opposition of interests and of
characters; however, it was from a continuance of their mutual
jealousies that the state was in some measure to expect its future
safety. 27. It was in this situation of things that Julius Caesar, who
had lately gone, as praetor, into Spain, and had returned with great
riches and glory, resolved to convert their mutual jealousy to his own
advantage. 28. This celebrated man was descended from popular and
illustrious ancestors. He warmly espoused the side of the people, and
shortly after the death of Sylla, procured the recall of those whom
Sylla had banished. He had all along declared for the populace against
the senate, and became their most favourite magistrate. 29. This
consummate statesman began by offering his services to Pompey,
promising to assist him in getting all his acts passed,
notwithstanding the senate's opposition. Pompey, pleased at the
acquisition of a person of so much merit, readily granted him his
confidence and protection. 30. He next applied to Crassus, who, from
former connections, was disposed to become still more nearly his
friend. 31. At length, finding them not averse to an union of
interests, he took an opportunity of bringing them together; and,
remonstrating with them on the advantages as well as the necessity of
a reconciliation, he had art enough to persuade them to forget former
animosities. 32. A combination was thus formed, by which they agreed
that nothing should be done in the commonwealth without their mutual
concurrence and approbation. This was called the first Trium'virate,
by which we find the constitution weakened by a new interest which had
not hitherto taken place, very different from that of the senate or
the people, and yet dependent on both.


_Questions for Examination_.

1. What followed on the death of Sylla?

2. What first discovered their mutual jealousy?

3. What was the next trial between them?

4. Under what pretences did they hide their real views?

5. What farther raised the reputation of Pompey?

6. What means were had recourse to for this purpose?

7, 8. What was the state of the war in Asia?

9. What were the consequences of Pompey's victories?

10. Who was the author, and what was the object of this conspiracy?

11. What was the character of Catiline?

12. What occasioned this conspiracy?

13. How was it to be carried into execution?

14. What was the chief obstacle to its accomplishment, and how was
this obstacle to be removed?

15. Was Cicero informed of their proceedings?

16. What precautions did he take in consequence?

17. What was the first step taken?

18. What was the conduct of Catiline on this occasion?

19. Did he continue in Rome?

20. Did the other conspirators escape?

21. How was Catiline employed in the mean time?

22. Had he a fair prospect of success?

23. Did he boldly face his opponents?

24. What followed?

25. Did the extinction of this conspiracy give peace to Rome?

26. Who were the contending parties, and what was the consequence of
this dissension?

27. Who profited by these jealousies?

28. Who was Julius Caesar, and by what means did he acquire popularity?

29. What was his first step towards power?

30. To whom did he next apply?

31. What consequence resulted from his application?

32. What agreement was entered into by them, and what were they
called?

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Ci'cero, the first of Roman orators, as Demos'thenes was of the
Greek, was born at Arpin'um, a town of the Volsci, and studied under
the most celebrated orators and philosophers of Greece. His style of
eloquence was copious, highly ornamented, and addressed more to the
passions than to the judgment of his hearers. He was consul at the
time of Cat'iline's conspiracy; and, for his eminent services in
detecting and frustrating it, was honoured with the title of Pater
Patriae.

[2] On his entrance, the senators near whom he attempted to seal
himself, quitting their places, left him quite alone.

[3] On his arrival, he assumed all the insignia of a supreme
magistrate being preceded by lictors carrying the axes and fasces.

[4] Cataline himself, finding his affairs desperate, threw himself
into the midst of the enemy, and there found the death he sought.
(Sallust.)

* * * * *




CHAPTER XX.


SECTION I.

FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE, TO THE DEATH OF
POMPEY.--U.C. 694.

How happy was I, in my lawful wars
In Germany, in Gaul, and Brittany!
When every night with pleasure I set down
What the day ministered; then sleep came sweetly.
_Beaumont and Fletcher_.

1. The first thing that Caesar did, upon forming the Trium'virate, was
to avail himself of the interest of his confederates to obtain the
consulship. 2. The senate had still some influence left; and though
they were obliged to concur in choosing him, yet they gave him for a
colleague one Bib'ulus, whom they supposed would be a check upon his
power. 3. But the opposition was too strong for even superior
abilities to resist; so that Bib'ulus, after a slight attempt in
favour of the senate, remained inactive. 4. Caesar began his schemes
for empire by ingratiating himself with the people; he procured a law
for dividing certain lands in Campa'nia among such of the poor
citizens as had at least three children. This proposal was just enough
in itself, and it was criminal only from the views of the proposer.

5. Having thus strengthened himself at home, he deliberated with his
confederates about sharing the foreign provinces of the empire. 6. The
partition was soon made: Pompey chose Spain; for, being fatigued with
conquest, and satiated with military fame, he was willing to take his
pleasures at Rome. Crassus chose Syria; which province, as it had
hitherto enriched the generals who had subdued it, would, he hoped,
gratify him in this his favourite pursuit. To Caesar were left the
provinces of Gaul, composed of fierce and powerful nations, most of
them unsubdued, and the rest only professing a nominal subjection. 7.
As this was appointing him rather to conquer than command, the
government was granted him for five years, as if by its continuance to
compensate for its danger.

8. It would be impossible, in this narrow compass, to enumerate the
battles Caesar fought, and the states he subdued, in his expeditions
into Gaul and Britain, which continued eight years.

[Illustration: Caesar landing in Britain.]

9. The Helvetians[1] were the first that were brought into subjection,
with the loss of nearly two hundred thousand men; those who
remained after the carnage were sent by Caesar in safety to the forests
whence they had issued.[2] 10. The Germans, with Ariovis'tus at their
head, were next cut off, to the number of eighty thousand, their
monarch himself narrowly escaping in a little boat across the Rhine.
The Belgae[3] suffered such a terrible overthrow, that marshes and
rivers were rendered impassable from the heaps of slain. 11. The
Ner'vians,[4] who were the most warlike of those barbarous nations,
made head for a short time, and fell upon the Romans with such fury,
that their army was in danger of being utterly routed; but Caesar
himself, hastily catching up a buckler, rushed through his troops into
the midst of the enemy; by which means he so turned the fate of the
day, that the barbarians were all cut off to a man. 12. The Celtic
Gauls were next brought under subjection. After them, the Sue'vi, the
Mena'pii, and all the nations from the Mediterranean to the British
sea. 13. Thence, stimulated by the desire of conquest, he crossed over
into Britain, upon pretence that the natives had furnished his enemies
with continual supplies. 14. Upon approaching the shores, he found
them covered with men to oppose his landing, and his forces were in
danger of being driven back, till the standard-bearer of the
tenth legion boldly leapt ashore, and being well assisted by Caesar,
the natives were put to flight. 15. The Britons being terrified at
Caesar's power, sent to desire a peace, which was granted them, and
some hostages delivered. A storm, however, soon after destroying great
part of his fleet, they resolved to take advantage of the disaster,
and marched against him with a powerful army. But what could naked
undisciplined troops do against forces that had been exercised under
the greatest generals, and hardened by the conquest of the greatest
part of the world? Being overthrown, they were obliged once more to
sue for peace. Caesar granted it, and returned to the continent.

16. While Caesar was thus increasing his reputation and riches abroad,
Pompey, who remained in Rome, steadily co-operated with his ambition,
and advanced his interests, while he vainly supposed he was forwarding
his own. By this means Caesar was continued five years longer in Gaul.
17. Nor was Pompey roused from his lethargy till the fame of that
great commander's valour, riches, and humanity, began to make him
suspect they would soon eclipse his own. 18. He now therefore did all
in his power to diminish Caesar's reputation; obliging the magistrates
not to publish any letters they received till he had diminished the
credit of them, by spreading disadvantageous reports. 19. One or two
accidents, also, helped to widen the separation; namely, the death of
Julia,[5] Pompey's wife, who had not a little contributed to improve
the harmony that subsisted between them; and the destruction of
Crassus, who had conducted the war against the Parthians with so
little prudence, that he suffered them to get the advantage of him in
almost every skirmish; when, incapable of extricating himself, he fell
a sacrifice to his own rashness in trusting himself to a perfidious
enemy.[6]

It was at this period that T. Maurius Milo, being a candidate for the
office of consul, during the heat of the canvassing happened, when
riding into the country, to meet Clodius, a turbulent man, who
favoured his opponent.

[Illustration: Exposure of Clodius's body in the Forum.]

The meeting was accidental, but a skirmish between their
attendants drew on a contest which terminated in the death of
Clodius. The body was brought into Rome where it was exposed, all
covered with blood and wounds, to the view of the populace, who
flocked around it in crowds to lament the miserable fate of their
leader. The next day the mob, headed by a kinsman of the deceased,
carried the body, with the wounds exposed, into the forum; and the
enemies of Milo, addressing the crowd with inflammatory speeches,
wrought them up to such a frenzy that they carried the body into the
senate-house, and, tearing up the benches and tables, made a funeral
pile, and, together with the body, burnt the house itself, and then
stormed the house of Milo, but were repulsed. This violence, and the
eloquence of Cicero in his defence, saved Milo from the punishment
which he had good reason to fear for the assassination of Clodius.

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