Oliver Goldsmith - Pinnock\'s Improved Edition of Dr. Goldsmith\'s History of Rome

O >> Oliver Goldsmith >> Pinnock\'s Improved Edition of Dr. Goldsmith\'s History of Rome

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20. Caesar, who now began to be sensible of the jealousies of Pompey,
took occasion to solicit for the consulship, together with a
prolongation of his government in Gaul, desirous of trying whether
Pompey would thwart or promote his pretensions. 21. In this Pompey
seemed to be quite inactive; but, at the same time, privately employed
two of his creatures, who alleged in the senate that the laws did not
permit a person who was absent to offer himself as a candidate for
that high office. 22. Pompey's view in this was to allure Caesar from
his government, in order to stand for the consulship in person. 23.
Caesar, however, perceiving his artifice, chose to remain in his
province, convinced that while he headed an army devoted to him, he
could give law as well as magistrates to the state.

24. The senate, which was devoted to Pompey, because he had for some
time attempted to defend them from the encroachments of the people,
ordered home the two legions which were in Caesar's army belonging to
Pompey, as it was pretended, to oppose the Parthians, but in reality
to diminish Caesar's power. 25. Caesar saw their motive: but as his
plans were not yet ripe for execution, he sent them home in pursuance
of the orders of the senate, having previously attached the officers
to him by benefits, and the soldiers by bounties. 26. The next step
the senate took, was to recall Caesar from his government, as his time
was very near expiring. But Cu'rio, his friend in the senate, proposed
that Caesar should not leave his army till Pompey had set him the
example. 27. This for a while perplexed Pompey; however, during the
debate, one of the senate declaring that Caesar had passed the Alps,
and was marching with his whole army directly towards Rome, the
consul, immediately quitting the senate, went with his colleagues to a
house where Pompey at that time resided. He there presented him with a
sword, commanding him to march against Caesar, and fight in defence of
the commonwealth. 28. Pompey declared he was ready to obey, but with
an air of pretended moderation added, that it was only in case more
gentle expedients could not be employed. 29. Caesar, who was instructed
in all that passed, though he was still in Gaul, was willing to give
his aims all the appearance of justice. He agreed to lay down his
employment when Pompey should do the same. But the senate rejected his
propositions, blindly confident of their power, and relying on the
assurances of Pompey. Caesar, still unwilling to come to an open
rupture with the state, at last was content to ask the government of
Illyr'ia, with two legions; but this also was refused him. 30. Finding
all attempts at an accommodation fruitless, and conscious, if not of
the goodness of his cause, at least of the goodness of his troops, he
began to draw them down towards the confines of Italy; and passing the
Alps with his third legion, stopped at Raven'na, whence he once more
wrote to the consuls, declaring that he was ready to resign all
command in case Pompey would do so. 31. On the other hand, the senate
decreed, that Caesar should lay down his government, and disband
his forces within a limited time; and, if he refused obedience, that
he should be declared an enemy to the commonwealth.

_Questions for Examination._

1. What was Caesar's first act after the Triumvirate had been formed?

2. Whom did the senate appoint as Caesar's colleague, and why?

3. Had Bibulus any controul over Caesar?

4. How did Caesar commence his schemes?

5. How did he farther promote his views?

6. How were the provinces allotted?

7, 8. Was Caesar's a desirable allotment?

9. Who were the first that submitted to Caesar's arms?

10. Who were the next?

11. Who made the most formidable resistance?

12. What other nations were subdued by Caesar?

13. Did these conquests content him?

14. What opposition did he experience on the British coast?

15. What followed this defeat?

16. In what way were Caesar's views promoted?

17. Did not Pompey suspect his intentions?

18. When undeceived, what measures did he pursue?

19. What contributed to widen the breach?

20. How did Caesar ascertain the disposition of Pompey towards him?

21. Did Pompey take an active part?

22. What was Pompey's view in this?

23. Did Caesar fall into the snare?

24. Which side did the senate favour?

25. Did Caesar give up the legions?

26. What was the next step they took?

27. What was the consequence of this proposal?

28. Did Pompey obey this command?

29. What was Caesar's conduct on this occasion?

30. How did he next proceed?

31. What measure did the senate adopt?

SECTION II.

On him thy hate, on him thy curse bestow.
Who would persuade thee Caesar is thy foe;
And since to thee I consecrate my toil,
Oh! favour thou my cause, and on thy soldier smile.--_Lucan._

1. Caesar, however, seemed no way disturbed at these violent
proceedings; the night before his intended expedition into Italy, he
sat down to table cheerfully, conversing with his friends on subjects
of literature and philosophy; and apparently disengaged from every
ambitious concern. After some time, rising up, he desired the
company to make themselves joyous in his absence, and that he would be
with them in a moment: in the mean time, having ordered his chariot to
be prepared, he immediately set out, attended by a few friends, for
Arim'inum, a city upon the confines of Italy, whither he had
despatched a part of his army the morning before. 2. This journey by
night, which was very fatiguing, he performed with great diligence,
sometimes walking, and sometimes on horseback; till at the break of
day, he came up with his army, which consisted of about five thousand
men, near the Ru'bicon, a little river which separates Italy from
Gaul, and which marked the limits of his command. 3. The Romans had
ever been taught to consider this river as the sacred boundary of
their domestic empire. 4. Caesar, therefore, when he advanced at the
head of his army to the side of it, stopped short upon the bank, as if
impressed with terror at the greatness of his enterprise. He could not
pass it without transgressing the laws; he therefore pondered for some
time in fixed melancholy, looking and debating with himself whether he
should venture in. "If I pass this river," said he to one of his
generals, "what miseries shall I bring upon my country! and if I now
stop short I am undone." 5. After a pause he exclaimed, "Let us go
where the gods and the injustice of our enemies call us." Thus saying,
and renewing all his former alacrity, he plunged in, crying out, "The
die is cast." His soldiers followed him with equal promptitude, and
having passed the Ru'bicon, quickly arrived at Arim'inum, and made
themselves masters of the place without any resistance.

6. This unexpected enterprise excited the utmost terror in Rome; every
one imagining that Caesar was leading his army to lay the city in
ruins. At the same time were to be seen the citizens flying into the
country for safety, and the inhabitants of the country coming to seek
shelter in the city. 7. In this universal confusion, Pompey felt all
that repentance and self-condemnation, which must necessarily arise
from the remembrance of having advanced his rival to his present pitch
of power: wherever he appeared, many of his former friends were ready
to tax him with his supineness, and sarcastically to reproach his
ill-grounded presumption. 8. "Where is now," cried Favo'nius, a
ridiculous senator of this party, "the army that is to rise at your
command? let us see if it will appear by stamping."[7] Cato
reminded him of the many warnings he had given him; which, however, as
he was continually boding nothing but calamities, Pompey might very
justly be excused from attending to. 9. Being at length wearied with
these reproaches, which were offered under colour of advice, he did
all that lay in his power to encourage and confirm his followers: he
told them that they should not want an army, for that he would be
their leader. He confessed, indeed, that he had all along mistaken
Caesar's aims, judging only from what they ought to have been; however,
if his friends were still inspired with the love of freedom, they
might yet enjoy it in whatever place their necessities should happen
to conduct them. 16. He let them know that their affairs were in a
very promising situation: that his two lieutenants were at the head of
a very considerable army in Spain, composed of veteran troops that had
made a conquest of the east: besides these, there were infinite
resources, both in Asia and Africa, together with the succours they
were sure to receive from all the kingdoms that were in alliance with
Rome. 11. This speech served in some measure to revive the hopes of
the confederacy. The greatest part of the senate, his private friends
and dependents, with all those who expected to make their fortunes by
espousing his cause, agreed to follow him. But being in no capacity to
resist Caesar at Rome, he resolved to lead his forces to Cap'ua, where
the two legions that served under Caesar in Gaul were stationed.

12. Caesar in the mean time, after having vainly attempted to bring
Pompey to an accommodation, resolved to pursue him into Cap'ua before
he could collect his forces. Accordingly, he marched on to take
possession of the cities that lay between him and his rival, not
regarding Rome, which he knew would fall of course to the conqueror.

13. Corfin'ium was the first city that attempted to stop the rapidity
of his march. It was defended by Domi'tius, who had been appointed by
the senate to succeed him in Gaul. Caesar quickly invested it; and
though Domi'tius sent frequently to Pompey, exhorting him to come and
raise the siege, he was at length obliged to endeavour to escape
privately. 14. His intentions being divulged, the garrison resolved to
consult their own safety by delivering him up to the besiegers. Caesar
readily accepted their offers, but kept his men from immediately
entering the town. 15. After some time, Len'tulus the consul, who was
one of the besieged, came out to implore forgiveness for himself and
the rest of his confederates, putting Caesar in mind of their ancient
friendship, and acknowledging the many favours he had received at his
hands. 16. To this Caesar, who would not wait the conclusion of his
speech, generously replied, that he came into Italy not to injure the
liberties of Rome and its citizens, but to restore them. 17. This
humane reply being quickly carried into the city, the senators and the
knights, with their children, and some officers of the garrison, came
out to claim the conqueror's protection, who, just glancing at their
ingratitude, gave them their liberty, with permission to go
wheresoever they should think proper. 18. But while he dismissed the
leaders, he took care upon this, as upon all other occasions, to
attach the common soldiers to his interest, sensible that he might
stand in need of the army; but that while he lived, the army could
never stand in need of a commander.

19. Pompey, who was unable to continue in Rome, having intelligence of
what had passed upon this occasion, retreated to Brundu'sium, where he
resolved to stand a siege, in order to retard the enemy, until the
forces of the empire should be united to oppose him. 20. His aim in
this succeeded to his wish; and after having employed Caesar for some
time in a fruitless siege, he privately carried his forces over to
Dyrrach'ium, where the consul had levied a body of troops for his
assistance. 21. However, though he made good his escape, he was
compelled to leave all Italy at the mercy of his rival, without a town
or an army that had strength to oppose his progress.

22. Caesar, who could not follow Pompey for want of shipping, went back
to Rome, to take possession of the public treasures, which his
opponent, by a most unaccountable oversight, had neglected to take
with him. 23. Upon his coming up to the door of the treasury,
Metel'lus, the tribune, who guarded it, refused to let him pass; but
Caesar, with emotion, laying his hand upon his sword, threatened to
strike him dead. "Know, young man," cried he, "it is easier to do this
than say it." This menace had its effect; Metel'lus retired, and
Caesar took out of the treasury three hundred thousand pounds weight of
gold, and an immense quantity of silver.

24. Having thus provided for continuing the war, he departed from
Rome, resolved to subdue Pompey's lieutenants, Afra'nius and
Petrei'us, who had been long in Spain at the head of a veteran army,
which had ever been victorious. 25. Caesar, however, who knew the
abilities of its present commanders, jocosely said, as he was
preparing to march, "I am going to fight an army without a general,
and return to fight a general without an army."

26. The first conflict which he had with Afra'nius and Petrei'us was
rather unfavourable. It was fought near the city of Ilerda,[8] and
both sides claimed the honour of the victory. But, by various
stratagems, he reduced them at last to such extremity of hunger and
drought, that they were obliged to yield at discretion. 27. Clemency
was his favourite virtue; he dismissed them all with the kindest
professions, and then sent them home to Rome loaded with shame, and
with obligations to publish his virtues, and confirm the affections of
his adherents. 28. Thus, in the space of about forty days, he became
master of Spain, and returned again victorious to Rome. The citizens
on this occasion received him with fresh demonstrations of joy, and
created him dictator and consul. But the first of these offices he
laid down when he had held it eleven days.

_Questions for Examination._

1. How did Caesar conduct himself on the night previous to his intended
journey to Italy?

2. Did he accomplish his journey in safety?

3. What rendered this little river of consequence?

4. Did Caesar pass it without hesitation?

5. How did he determine?

6. What effect was produced at Rome by this enterprise?

7. How was Pompey affected by it?

8. What taunting expressions were used on this occasion?

9. What was Pompey's conduct in reply?

10. How did he represent the state of affairs?

11. What was the consequence of this statement?

12. How was Caesar employed in the mean while?

13. What city first arrested his progress?

14. Did he succeed in his endeavour?

15. What attempt was made to incline Caesar to mercy?

16. What was Caesar's reply?

17. What was the consequence of this reply?

18. Did he dismiss the soldiers likewise?

19. Whither did Pompey retreat, and with what view?

20. Did he succeed in his aims?

21. What was the consequence of his retreat?

22. Did Caesar follow Pompey?

23. Was he opposed in his attempt?

24. What was his next enterprise?

25. What was Caesar's opinion of these commanders?

26. Were they easily conquered?

27. What use did he make of his victory?

28. What was the duration of this campaign, and what were its
consequences?

SECTION III.

O war! what art thou?
At once the proof and scourge of man's fall'n state!
After the brightest conquest, what appears
Of all thy glories? for the vanquish'd, chains!
For the proud victors, what? Alas! to reign
O'er desolated nations.--_H. More_.

1. While Caesar was thus employed, Pompey was active in making
preparations in Epi'rus and Greece to oppose him. 2. All the monarchs
of the East had declared in his favour, and sent very large supplies.
He was master of nine effective Italian legions, and had a fleet of
five hundred large ships, under the conduct of Bib'ulus, an active and
experienced commander. Added to these, he was supplied with large sums
of money, and all the necessaries for an army, from the tributary
provinces round him. 3. He had attacked Antony and Dolabel'la, who
commanded for Caesar in that part of the empire, with such success,
that the former was obliged to fly, and the latter was taken prisoner.
Crowds of the most distinguished citizens and nobles from Rome came
every day to join him. He had at one time above two hundred senators
in his camp, among whom were Ci'cero and Ca'to, whose approbation of
his cause was equivalent to an army.

4. Notwithstanding these preparations, Caesar shipped off five of his
twelve legions at Brundu'sium, and fortunately steered through the
midst of his enemies, timing it so well that he made his passage in
one day.

[Illustration: Caesar embarking in a fishing boat.]

5. Still, however, convinced that the proper time for making proposals
for a peace was after gaining advantage, he sent one Ru'fus, whom he
had taken prisoner, to effect an accommodation with Pompey,
offering to refer all to the senate and people of Rome; but Pompey
once more rejected the overture, considering the people of Rome too
much in Caesar's interest to be relied on.

6. Pompey had been raising supplies in Macedo'nia when he was first
informed of Caesar's landing upon the coast of Epi'rus: he now resolved
immediately to march to Dyrrach'ium, in order to cover that place from
Caesar's attempts, as all his ammunition and provisions were deposited
there. 7. The first place where both armies came in sight of each
other was on the opposite banks of the river Ap'sus; and as both were
commanded by the two greatest generals then in the world; the one
renowned for his conquests in the East, and the other celebrated for
his victories over the western parts of the empire, a battle was
eagerly desired by the soldiers on either side. 8. But neither of the
generals was willing to hazard it upon this occasion: Pompey could not
rely upon his new levies; and Caesar would not venture an engagement
till he was joined by the rest of his forces.

9. Caesar had waited some time with extreme impatience for the coming
up of the remainder of his army, and even ventured alone in an open
fishing-boat to hasten its arrival; but he was driven back by a
storm.[9] 10. However, his disappointment was soon relieved by an
information of the landing of the troops at Apollo'nia; he,
therefore, decamped in order to meet them; and to prevent Pompey, with
his army, from engaging them on their march, as he lay on that side of
the river where the succours had been obliged to come on shore.

11. Pompey, being compelled to retreat, led his forces to Aspara'gium,
where he was sure of being supplied with every thing necessary for his
army, by the numerous fleets which he employed along the coasts of
Epi'rus: there he pitched his camp upon a tongue of land (as mariner's
express it) that jutted into the sea, where also was a small shelter
for his ships. 12. In this place, being most advantageously situated,
he began immediately to intrench his camp; which Caesar perceiving, and
finding that he was not likely soon to quit so advantageous a post,
began also to intrench behind him. 13. As all beyond Pompey's camp
towards the land side was hilly and steep, Caesar built redoubts upon
the hills, stretching from shore to shore, and then caused lines of
communication to be drawn from hill to hill, by which he blocked up
the camp of the enemy. 14. He hoped by this blockade to force his
opponent to a battle, which he ardently desired, and which the other
with equal industry declined. Thus both sides continued for some time
employed in designs and stratagems, the one to annoy and the other to
defend. 15. Caesar's men daily carried on their works to straiten the
enemy; those of Pompey, having the advantage of numbers, did the same
to enlarge themselves, and severely galled the enemy by their slingers
and archers. 16. Caesar, however, was indefatigable; he caused blinds
or mantalets to be made of the skins of beasts, to cover his men while
at work; he cut off all the water that supplied the enemy's camp, and
the forage from the horses, so that there remained no more subsistence
for them. 17. But Pompey at last resolved to break through his lines,
and gain some other part of the country more convenient for
encampment. Accordingly, having informed himself of the condition of
Caesar's fortifications from some deserters who came over to him, he
ordered the light infantry and archers on board his ships to attack
Caesar's entrenchments by sea, where they were least defended. 18. This
was done with such effect, that though Caesar and his officers used
their utmost endeavours to hinder Pompey's designs, yet by means of
reiterated attempts, he at last effected his purpose of extricating
his army from its present camp, and of encamping in another place
by the sea, where he had the convenience both of forage and shipping.
19. Caesar being thus frustrated in his views of blocking up the enemy,
and perceiving the loss he had sustained, resolved at last to force
Pompey to a battle, though upon disadvantageous terms. 20. The
engagement began by attempting to cut off a legion which was posted in
a wood; and this brought on a general battle. The conflict was for
some time carried on with great ardour, and with equal fortune; but
Caesar's army being entangled in the entrenchments of the old camps
lately abandoned, began to fall into disorder; upon which Pompey
pressing his advantage, they at last fled with precipitation. Great
numbers perished in the trenches and on the banks of the river, or
were pressed to death by their fellows. 21. Pompey pursued his success
to the very camp of Caesar; but either from surprise, under the
suddenness of his victory, or fearful of an ambuscade, he with drew
his troops into his own camp, and thus lost an opportunity of
completing his victory.

22. After this defeat, which was by no means decisive, Caesar marched,
with all his forces united in one body, directly to Gom'phi, a town in
the province of Thes'saly. But the news of his defeat at Dyr'rachium
had reached this place before him; the inhabitants, therefore, who had
before promised him obedience, now changed their minds, and, with a
degree of baseness equal to their imprudence, shut their gates against
him. 23. Caesar was not to be injured with impunity. Having represented
to his soldiers the great advantage of forcing a place so very rich,
he ordered the scaling ladders to be got ready, and causing an assault
to be made, proceeded with such vigour that, notwithstanding the
height of the walls, the town was taken in a few hours. 24. Caesar left
it to be plundered, and, without delaying his march, went forward to
Metrop'olis, another town of the same province, which yielded at his
approach. By this means he soon became possessed of all Thes'saly,
except Laris'sa, which was garrisoned by Scip'io, with his legion who
commanded for Pompey. 25. During this interval, Pompey's officers
continually soliciting their commander to come to a battle, he, at
length, resolved to renounce his own judgment in compliance with those
about him, and gave up all schemes of prudence for those dictated by
avarice and passion. 26. Advancing, therefore, into Thes'saly, within
a few days after the taking of Gom'phi, he drew down upon the
plains of Pharsa'lia, where he was joined by Scip'io, his lieutenant,
and the troops under his command. There, waiting the coming of Caesar,
he resolved to engage, and, by a single battle, decide the fate of
kingdoms.

_Questions for Examination._

1. How was Pompey engaged at this time?

2. What advantages did he possess?

3. What farther contributed to give him hopes of success?

4. Was Caesar discouraged by these formidable preparations?

5. Was he resolutely bent on hostilities?

6. What was Pompey's first measure?

7. Where did the armies first come in sight of each other?

8. Was an immediate engagement the consequence?

9. Was this junction soon effected?

10. What was the consequence?

11. What was Pompey's next measure?

12. Did he remain long in this place?

13. What means did Caesar adopt to distress the enemy?

14. What did he promise himself from the adoption of this plan?

15. How were both armies employed?

16. What was the conduct of Caesar on this occasion?

17. How did Pompey frustrate his designs?

18. Was he successful in his attempts?

19. What was Caesar's resolution on this occasion?

20. By what means did he effect this?

21. Did Pompey make the most of his victory?

22. Whither did Caesar betake himself, and what was the consequence of
his defeat?

23. Did he quietly submit to this insult?

24. What revenge did he take?

25. How did Pompey act on this occasion?

26. Where was this great contest about to be decided?

SECTION IV.

Each had proposed an empire to be won;
Had each once known a Pompey for his son,
Had Caesar's soul informed each private breast.
A fiercer fury could not be expressed.--_Lucan_.

1. Caesar had employed all his art for some time in sounding the
inclinations of his men; and finding his army once more resolute and
vigorous, he advanced towards the plains of Pharsa'lia, where Pompey
was encamped.

2. The approach of two armies, composed of the best and bravest troops
in the world, together with the greatness of the prize for which they
contended, filled every mind with anxiety, though with different
expectations. 3. Pompey's army, being most numerous, turned all their
thoughts to the enjoyment of the victory; Caesar's considered only the
means of obtaining it; Pompey's army depended upon their numbers, and
their many generals; Caesar's upon their discipline, and the conduct of
their single commander. 4. Pompey's partisans hoped much from the
justice of their cause; Caesar's alleged the frequent proposals which
they had made for peace without effect. Thus the views, hopes and
motives of both seemed different, whilst their hatred and ambition
were the same. 5. Caesar, who was ever foremost in offering battle, led
out his army to meet the enemy; but Pompey, either suspecting his
troops, or dreading the event, kept his advantageous situation at the
foot of the hill near which he was posted. 6. Caesar, unwilling to
attack him at a disadvantage, resolved to decamp the next day, hoping
to weary out his antagonist, who was not a match for him in sustaining
the fatigues of duty. 7. Accordingly the order for marching was given,
and the tents were struck, when word was brought him that Pompey's
army had now quitted their intrenchments, and advanced farther into
the plain than usual; so that he might engage them at less
disadvantage. 8. Upon this he caused his troops to halt, and, with a
countenance of joy, informed them that the happy time was at last
come, which they had so long wished for, and which was to crown their
glory, and terminate their fatigues. He then drew up his troops in
order, and advanced towards the place of battle. 9. His forces did not
amount to above half those of Pompey; the army of the one was about
forty-five thousand foot, and seven thousand horse: that of the other
not exceeding twenty-two thousand foot, and about a thousand horse.
10. This disproportion, particularly in the cavalry, had filled Caesar
with apprehensions; he therefore had some days before picked out the
strongest and nimblest of his foot soldiers, and accustomed them to
fight between the ranks of his cavalry. By their assistance, his
thousand horse was a match for Pompey's seven thousand, and had
actually got the better in a skirmish that happened between them some
days before.

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