Oliver Goldsmith - Pinnock\'s Improved Edition of Dr. Goldsmith\'s History of Rome

O >> Oliver Goldsmith >> Pinnock\'s Improved Edition of Dr. Goldsmith\'s History of Rome

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21. Julian, the last remnant of the Flavian family, was, through the
powerful intercession of the empress, spared, and permitted to
pursue his studies in Athens. In that city, where the Pagan philosophy
was still publicly taught, the future emperor imbibed the doctrines of
the heathens, and thus acquired the epithet of Apostate, by which he
is unenviably known to posterity. Julian was soon recalled from his
retirement, and elevated to the station which his unfortunate brother
had enjoyed. His investiture with the royal purple took place at
Milan, whither Constantius had proceeded to quell a new insurrection
in the western provinces.

22. Before the emperor returned to the east, he determined to revisit
the ancient capital; and Rome, after an interval of more than thirty
years, became for a brief space the residence the sovereign. He
signalized his visit by presenting to the city an obelisk, which at a
vast expense he procured to be transported from Egypt. 23. The
renewed efforts of the Persians and other enemies of the empire in the
East, recalled Constan'tius to Constantinople, while Julian was
employed in driving from Gaul the barbarous tribes by which it had
been invaded. The conduct of the young Caesar, both as a soldier and a
statesman, fully proved that literary habits do not disqualify a
person from discharging the duties of active life; he subdued the
enemies that devastated the country, and forced them to seek refuge in
their native forests; he administered the affairs of state with so
much wisdom, temperance, and equity, that he acquired the enthusiastic
love of his subjects, and richly earned the admiration of posterity.
24. The unexpected glory obtained by Julian, awakened the jealousy of
Constan'tius; he sent to demand from him a large body of forces, under
the pretence that reinforcements were wanting in the East; but the
soldiers refused to march, and Julian, after some affected delays,
sanctioned their disobediance. A long negociation, in which there was
little sincerity on either side, preceded any hostile step; both at
length began to put their armies in motion, but the horrors of civil
war were averted by the timely death of Constan'tius, who fell a
victim to fever, aggravated by his impatience, at a small village near
Tar'sus in Cili'cia.

_Questions for Examination_.

1. What was the character of Constantine the Great?

2. Did any evil result from the employment of spies?

3. In what manner were the sons of Constantine educated?

4. What conspiracy was formed against part of the imperial family?

5. Did any of the Flavian family escape from the massacre?

6. How was the empire divided between the sons of Constantine?

7. Who was the most formidable enemy of the empire?

8. How did the king of Persia behave in the Arabian war?

9. What were the chief events in the war between Sapor and
Constantius? 10. How were Sapor and Constantius forced to make peace?

11. What was the fate of the younger Constantine?

12. By whom was Constans dethroned?

13. What parties embraced the cause of Vetranio?

14. How did Constantius treat the Illyrian general?

15. Was Magnentius deserted by any of his forces?

16. What were the circumstances of the battle of Mursa?

17. What important results were occasioned by this great battle?

18. Who was the prime minister of Constantius?

19. Whom did the emperor select as an associate?

20. How was Gallus brought to an untimely end?

21. Where was Julian educated?

22. Did Constantius visit Rome?

23. How did Julian conduct himself in Gaul?

24. What led to the war between Julian and Constantius?

SECTION II.

To him, as to the bursting levin,
Brief, bright, resistless course was given,
Till burst the bolt on yonder shore,
Burn'd, blaz'd, destroy'd--and was no more.--_Scott_.

1. Julian was in his thirty-second year when by the death of his
cousin he became undisputed sovereign of the Roman empire; his worst
error was his apostacy from Christianity; he hated the religion he had
deserted, and laboured strenuously to substitute in its place an idle
system which combined the most rational part of the old heathen system
with the delusive philosophy of the schools. Vanity was his besetting
sin; he chose to be considered a philosopher rather than a sovereign,
and to acquire that title he thought fit to reject the decencies of
this life, and the best guide to that which is to come. A treatise is
extant from Julian's pen, in which he expatiates with singular
complacency on the filth of his beard, the length of his nails, and
the inky blackness of his hands, as if cleanliness was inconsistent
with the philosophic character! In every other respect, the conduct of
Julian merits high praise; he was just, merciful, and tolerant; though
frequently urged to become a persecutor, he allowed his subjects that
freedom of opinion which he claimed for himself, unlike Constan'tius,
who, having embraced the Arian heresy, treated his Catholic subjects
with the utmost severity. 2. But, though Julian would not inflict
punishment for a difference of opinion, he enacted several
disqualifying laws, by which he laboured to deprive the Christians of
wealth, of knowledge, and of power; he ordered their schools to be
closed, and he jealously excluded them from all civil and military
offices. 3. To destroy the effects of that prophecy in the Gospel to
which Christians may appeal as a standing miracle in proof of
revelation,--the condition of the Jews,--Julian determined to rebuild
the temple of Jerusalem, and restore the children of Israel to the
land of their fathers. Historians worthy of credit inform us, that his
plan was defeated by a direct miraculous interposition, and there are
few historical facts supported by more decisive testimony; but even if
the miracle be denied, the prophecy must be considered as having
received decisive confirmation, from the acknowledged fact, that the
emperor entertained such a design, and was unable to effect its
accomplishment.

[Illustration: Julian the Apostate, ordering the Christian schools to
be closed.]

4. The mutual hatred of the Pagans and Christians would probably have
rekindled the flames of civil war, had not Julian fallen in an
expedition against the Persians. 5. The emperor triumphantly advanced
through the dominions of Sa'por as far as the Ti'gris; but the
Asiatics, though defeated in the field, adopted means of defence more
terrible to an invader than arms. They laid waste the country,
destroyed the villages, and burned the crops in the Roman line of
march; a burning sun weakened the powers of the western veterans, and
when famine was added to the severity of the climate, their sufferings
became intolerable. 6. With a heavy heart Julian at last gave orders
to commence a retreat, and led his exhausted soldiers back over the
desert plains which they had already passed with so much difficulty.
The retrograde march was terribly harassed by the light cavalry of the
Persians, a species of troops peculiarly fitted for desultory warfare.
The difficulties of the Romans increased at every step, and the
harassing attacks of their pursuers became more frequent and more
formidable; at length, in a skirmish which almost deserved the name of
a battle, Julian was mortally wounded, and with his loss the Romans
dearly purchased a doubtful victory.

7. In the doubt and dismay which followed the death of Ju'lian, a few
voices saluted Jo'vian, the first of the imperial domestics, with the
title of emperor, and the army ratified the choice. The new sovereign
successfully repelled some fresh attacks of the Persians, but
despairing of final success, he entered into a treaty with
Sa'por, and purchased a peace, or rather a long truce of thirty years,
by the cession of several frontier provinces.

[Illustration: Jovian issuing the edict in favour of Christianity.]

8. The first care of Jo'vian was to fulfil the stipulated articles;
the Roman garrisons and colonies so long settled in the frontier towns
that they esteemed them as their native soil, were withdrawn; and the
Romans beheld with regret the omen of their final destruction in the
first dismemberment of the empire. The first edict in the new reign
contained a repeal of Julian's disqualifying laws, and a grant of
universal toleration. This judicious measure at once showed how
ineffectual had been the efforts of the late emperor to revive the
fallen spirit of paganism; the temples were immediately deserted, the
sacrifices neglected, the priests left alone at their altars; those
who, to gratify the former sovereign assumed the dress and title of
philosophers, were assailed by such storms of ridicule, that they laid
aside the designation, shaved their beards, and were soon
undistinguished in the general mass of society. 9. Jo'vian did not
long survive this peaceful triumph of Christianity; after a reign of
eight months, he was found dead in his bed, having been suffocated by
the mephitic vapours which a charcoal fire extracted from the fresh
plaster, on the walls of his apartment.

[Sidenote: A.D. 364.]

10. During ten days the Roman empire remained without a sovereign, but
finally the soldiers elevated to the imperial purple, Valentinian, the
son of count Gratian, an officer of distinguished merit. He chose as
his associate in the government his brother Valens, whose only claim
seems to have rested on fraternal affection; to him he entrusted the
rich prefecture of the East, while he himself assumed the
administration of the western provinces, and fixed the seat of his
government at Milan. 11. Though in other respects cruel, Valentinian
was remarkable for maintaining a system of religious toleration; but
Valens was far from pursuing such a laudable course. He had imbibed
the errors of Arius, and bitterly persecuted all who remained faithful
to the Catholic doctrines. By this unwise conduct he provoked a
formidable rebellion, which was headed by Proco'pius, an able general,
whom unjust persecution had stimulated to revolt. 12. The success of
the usurper was at first so great, that Va'lens was ready to yield up
his throne; but being dissuaded from this inglorious resolution, he
entrusted the conduct of the war to the aged prefect Sallust, who had
twice refused the imperial diadem. The followers of Proco'pius soon
deserted to those leaders whose names were endeared to their
recollections by the remembrance of former glories; and the
unfortunate leader, forsaken by all, was made prisoner and delivered
to the executioner.

13. In the mean time, Valenti'nian was engaged in a desperate warfare
with the German and other barbarous nations, who had recovered from
the losses which they had suffered under Ju'lian. On every frontier of
the western empire hordes of enemies appeared, eager for plunder,
regardless of their own lives, and merciless to those of others. 14.
The Picts and Scots rushed from the mountains of Caledo'nia upon the
colonies of North Britain, and devastated the country with fire and
sword, almost to the walls of London. The task of quelling these
incursions was entrusted to the gallant Theodo'sius, and the event
proved that Valentinian could not have made a better choice. In the
course of two campaigns, the invaders were driven back to their
forests, and a Roman fleet sweeping the coasts of Britain, made them
tremble for the safety of their own retreats.

15. The success of the emperor against the Saxons, the Franks, the
Alleman'ni[1], the Qua'di, and other tribes on the Rhine and Danube,
was not less conspicuous than that of Theodo'sius in Britain. 16. The
Qua'di, humbled by a severe defeat, sent ambassadors to deprecate his
displeasure; but while Valenti'nian was angrily upbraiding the
deputies for their unprovoked hostility, he ruptured a blood-vessel
and died almost instantaneously. He was succeeded by his sons Gra'tian
and Valenti'nian II.

17. A much more important change took place in the eastern world; the
first admission of the barbarian tribes into the empire, which
they finally destroyed.

[Illustration: The body of Valens, found upon the field of battle.]

[Sidenote: A.D. 376.]

The nation of the Goths had been from remote ages settled on the banks
of the Danube, and were by that river divided into two nations, the
Ostrogoths on the east, and the Visigoths on the west. They had for
many years enjoyed the blessings of profound peace under the
government of their king Herman'ric, when they were suddenly alarmed
by the appearance of vast hordes of unknown enemies on their northern
and eastern frontiers. These were the Huns, a branch of the great
Mongolian race, which, from the earliest time, had possessed the vast
and wild plains of Tartary. Terrified by the numbers, the strength,
the strange features and implacable cruelty of such foes, the Goths
deserted their country, almost without attempting opposition, and
supplicated the emperor Va'lens to grant them a settlement in the
waste lands of Thrace. This request was cheerfully granted, and the
eastern empire was supposed to be strengthened by the accession of a
million of valiant subjects, bound both by interest and gratitude to
protect its frontiers.

18. But the avarice of Va'lens and his ministers defeated these
expectations; instead of relieving their new subjects, the Roman
governors took advantage of their distress to plunder the remains of
their shattered fortunes, and to reduce their children to slavery.
Maddened by such oppression, the Goths rose in arms, and spread
desolation over the fertile plains of Thrace. Va'lens summoned his
nephew, Gratian, to his assistance; but before the emperor of the west
arrived, he imprudently engaged the Goths near Adrianople, and with
the greater part of his army fell on the field. 19. This was the
most disastrous defeat which the Romans had sustained for several
centuries; and there was reason to dread that it would encourage a
revolt of the Gothic slaves in the eastern provinces, which must
terminate in the ruin of the empire. To prevent such a catastrophe,
the senate of Constantinople ordered a general massacre of these
helpless mortals, and their atrocious edict was put into immediate
execution. 20. The Goths attempted to besiege both Adrianople and
Constantinople, but, ignorant of the art of attacking fortified
places, they were easily repelled; but they however succeeded in
forcing their way through the Thracian mountains, and spread
themselves over the provinces to the west, as far as the Adriatic sea
and the confines of Italy. The march of the emperor Gratian had been
delayed by the hostility of the Alleman'ni, whom he subdued in two
bloody engagements; but as he advanced towards Adrianople, fame
brought the news of his uncle's defeat and death, which he found
himself unable to revenge.

21. Feeling that the affairs of the East required the direction of a
mind more energetic than his own, he determined to invest with the
imperial purple, Theodo'sius, the son of that general who had rescued
Britain from the barbarians. How great must have been his confidence
in the fidelity of his new associate, who had a father's death to
revenge; for the elder Theodo'sius, notwithstanding his splendid
services, had fallen a victim to the jealous suspicions of the
emperor!

22. The reign of Theodo'sius in the East lasted nearly sixteen years,
and was marked by a display of unusual vigour and ability. He broke
the power of the Goths by many severe defeats, and disunited their
leading tribes by crafty negociations. But the continued drain on the
population, caused by the late destructive wars, compelled him to
recruit his forces among the tribes of the barbarians, and a change
was thus made in the character and discipline of the Roman army, which
in a later age produced the most calamitous consequences. The
exuberant zeal, which led him to persecute the Arians and the pagans,
occasioned some terrible convulsions, which distracted the empire, and
were not quelled without bloodshed. He, however, preserved the
integrity of the empire, and not a province was lost during his
administration.

23. The valour which Gratian had displayed in the early part of his
life, rendered the indolence and luxury to which he abandoned himself,
after the appointment of Theodo'sius, more glaring. The general
discontent of the army induced Max'imus, the governor of Britain, to
raise the standard of revolt, and, passing over to the continent, he
was joined by the greater part of the Gallic legions. When this
rebellion broke out Gratian was enjoying the sports of the field in
the neighbourhood of Paris, and did not discover his danger until it
was too late to escape. He attempted to save his life by flight, but
was overtaken by the emissaries of the usurper, near Lyons, and
assassinated. 24. Theodo'sius was induced to make peace with Max'imus,
on condition that the latter should content himself with the
prefecture of Gaul, and should not invade the territories of the
younger Valentin'ian. 25. Ambition hurried the faithless usurper to
his ruin; having by perfidy obtained possession of the passes of the
Alps, he led an overwhelming army into Italy, and Valenti'nian, with
his mother Justi'na, were scarcely able, by a hasty flight, to escape
to the friendly court of Theodo'sius.

26. The emperor of the East readily embraced the cause of the
fugitives; the numerous troops of barbarian cavalry which he had taken
into pay, enabled him to proceed with a celerity which baffled all
calculation. 27. Before Maximus could make any preparations for his
reception, Theodosius had completely routed his army, and was already
at the gates of Aquilei'a, where the usurper had taken refuge. The
garrison, secretly disinclined to the cause of Maximus, made but a
faint resistance, the town was taken, and the unfortunate ruler led as
a captive into the presence of his conqueror, by whom he was delivered
to the executioner.

Theodo'sius, having re-established the authority of the youthful
Valentin'ian, returned home. But the emperor of the West did not long
enjoy his restored throne; he was murdered by Arbogas'tes, his prime
minister, who dreaded that the abilities displayed by the young prince
would enable him, when arrived to maturity, to shake off the authority
of an unprincipled servant. 28. The assassin was afraid himself to
assume the purple, but he procured the election of Euge'nius, a man
not wholly unworthy of empire. Theodo'sius was called by these events
a second time to Italy; he passed the Alps, but found his further
progress impeded by the judicious disposition which Arbogas'tes had
made of his forces. Defeated in his first attack, Theodo'sius renewed
the engagement on the following day, and being aided by the seasonable
revolt of some Italian legions, obtained a complete victory.
Euge'nius was taken prisoner, and put to death by the soldiers.
Arbogas'tes, after wandering some time in the mountains, lost all hope
of escape, and terminated his life by suicide.

29. The empire was thus once more reunited under the government of a
single sovereign; but he was already stricken by the hand of death.
The fatigues of the late campaign proved too much for a constitution
already broken by the alternate pleasures of the palace and the toils
of the camp; four months after the defeat of Euge'nius, he died at
Milan, universally lamented.

_Questions for Examination_.

1. What was the character of Julian?

2. To what disqualifications did he subject the Christians?

3. How was Julian frustrated in his attempt to weaken the prophetic
evidence of Christianity?

4. How was a civil contest between the Pagans and Christians averted?

5. What success had Julian in the Persian invasion?

6. How did Julian die?

7. Who succeeded Julian?

8. What were the most important occurrences in the reign of Jovian?

9. What caused Jovian's death?

10. Who were the successors of Jovian?

11. How did Valens provoke a revolt?

12. By what means was the rebellion of Procopius suppressed?

13. What barbarous nations attacked the Roman empire?

14. In what state was Britain at this period?

15. Over what enemies did the emperor triumph?

16. What occasioned the death of Valentinian?

17. What caused the introduction of the Goths into the Roman empire?

18. How did the imprudence of Valens cause his destruction?

19. What atrocious edict was issued by the senate of Constantinople?

20. How was Gratian prevented from avenging his uncle's death?

21. To whom did Gratian entrust the eastern provinces?

22. How did Theodosius administer the government of the East?

23. By whom was Gratian deposed and slain?

24. On what conditions did Theodosius make peace with Maximus?

25. Were these conditions observed?

26. How did the war between Theodosius and Maximus terminate?

27. Did Valentinian long survive his restoration?

28. How did Theodosius act on the news of Valentinian's murder?

29. What caused the death of Theodosius?

FOOTNOTE:

[1] From this powerful tribe Germany is still called, by the French,
_Allemagne_.

* * * * *

CHAPTER XXVI.

SECTION I.

FROM THE DEATH OF THEODOSIUS TO THE SUBVERSION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE.

With eye of flame, and voice of fear,
He comes, the breaker of the spear,
The scorner of the shield!--_Anon._

1. The memory of their father's virtues protected the feeble youth of
Arca'dius and Hono'rius, the sons of Theodo'sius; by the unanimous
consent of mankind, they were saluted emperors of the East and West,
and between them was made the final and permanent division of the
Roman empire. Though both parts were never re-united under a single
ruler, they continued for several centuries to be considered as one
empire, and this opinion produced important consequences even in a
late period of the middle ages. The dominions of Arca'dius extended
from the lower Danube to the confines of Ethiopia and Persia;
including Thrace, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. Hono'rius, a
youth in his eleventh year, received the nominal sovereignty of Italy,
Africa, Gaul, Spain, and Britain, with the provinces of No'ricum,
Panno'nia, and Dalma'tia. The great and martial prefecture of
Illyr'icum was divided equally between the two princes, the boundary
line of whose dominions consequently nearly coincided with that which
separates the Austrian states from the Turkish provinces. 2. The
Western empire, to the history of which we must now confine ourselves,
though equal to the Eastern in extent, wealth, and population, was
incomparably weaker, and already appeared rapidly tending to decay.
The Caledonians in Britain, and the German tribes on the northern
frontiers, harassed the imperial troops by frequent incursions; on the
east, the Goths were hourly becoming more formidable, and the African
provinces were threatened by the Moors. 3. The internal state of the
empire furnished little ground for hope that these various enemies
could be subdued; the principle of union no longer existed; the proud
title of Roman citizen was an empty name, Rome itself had ceased to be
the metropolis, and was now only protected by the memory of her former
greatness.

4. Stil'icho, a general of superior abilities, and a statesman of
profound wisdom, acted as the guardian of Hono'rius. He was descended
from the perfidious race of the Vandals, and unfortunately possessed,
in an eminent degree, the cunning, treachery, and cruelty that
characterised his nation. The administration of the Eastern empire was
entrusted by Arca'dius, to Rufi'nus, who possessed all the bad
qualities of Stil'icho without his redeeming virtues. The ministers of
the two empires hated each other most cordially, and each secretly
sought to remove his powerful rival; but the superior craft of
Stil'icho, and his great influence over the soldiers, made him
conqueror. 5. He was ordered to lead into the East a fair proportion
of the army which Theodo'sius had assembled, and in obedience to the
requisition, he marched towards Constantinople, at the head of the
Gothic legions. The approach of his great rival with a powerful army
alarmed the timid Rufi'nus; he obtained a peremptory edict from
Arca'dius, commanding Stil'icho to return to Italy, and the
promptitude with which the order was obeyed lulled the Eastern
minister into fatal negligence. The troops arrived near
Constantinople, under the guidance of Gai'nas a Gothic leader, and the
emperor, accompanied by his minister, came out to welcome and review
the soldiers. As Rufi'nus rode along the ranks, endeavouring to
conciliate favour by studied courtesy, the wings gradually advanced,
and enclosed the devoted victim within the fatal circle of their arms.
Before he was aware of his danger, Gai'nas gave the signal of death; a
soldier rushing forward plunged his sword into his breast, and the
bleeding corpse fell at the very feet of the alarmed emperor. 6. His
mangled body was treated with shocking indignity, and his wife and
daughter would have shared his fate, had they not placed themselves
under the protection of religion, and sought refuge in the sanctuary.

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