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Robert W. Williamson - The Mafulu

R >> Robert W. Williamson >> The Mafulu





Netting.

In dealing with netting, I should begin with the making of the string;
but, as I think the method adopted is not confined to the mountains,
it is perhaps sufficient to refer to my previous description of
thread-making in connection with the manufacture of leg-bands;
though in most netting the strings are necessarily very much thicker
and stronger than are the threads used for leg-bands, and they are
three-stranded.

Hunting and fishing nets are made by men in a simple open form of
netting, worked on the common principle of the reef knot, and having
diamond-shaped holes, with a knot at each corner of each hole. I shall
refer to this form of netting as "ordinary network." The nets are made
of thick, strong material, except as regards the hand fishing nets,
which are made of the fine material used for making leg-bands. These
nets are never coloured.

Hammocks are made by men. They are sometimes done entirely with
ordinary network, and are then, I think, similar to Mekeo-made
hammocks; but often only two or three lines of netting are done in
this way, the rest of the net being made in a closer and finer pattern
of interlacing knotless network, which is never adopted on the coast
and Mekeo plains (all nets of this description found there having come
down from the mountains) and which I will call "Mafulu network." [90]
I have watched the making of one of these nets, and will endeavour
to describe the process. The ultimate result of the Mafulu network
part of this is shown in Plate 81.

The maker first formed a base line of three strands of native
string stretched out horizontally. This base line is marked _a b_
in Fig. 8. He then wound a long length of netting string round a
rough piece of stick to be used as a sort of netting shuttle. He next
worked the netting string on to the base line by a series of loops
or slip-knots as shown in Fig. 8, strand _c_ of each loop bending
upwards and becoming strand _d_ of the next loop to the right, and
the series of loops extending for the whole length of the base line,
and thus constituting the first loop line of the net. The hitches of
the loops, which appear loose and open in the figure for the purpose
of showing their construction, were really drawn tight on the base
line. On to these loops he then worked one line of ordinary network,
as shown in Fig. 9, the strings _a b c d_ in this figure being the
loops above mentioned, and the knots of this also being, of course,
drawn tight, and not made loose and open, as shown in the figure. The
base of this line again formed a series made one of these lines of
mesh for my instruction; but it is usual in the making of hammocks to
have two or three of them, as appears in the figure. The next stage
commenced the Mafulu network. The form of this is shown in Fig. 10;
and here again the actual network was more closely drawn than is shown
in the illustration, though it was not drawn tight, as in the case
of the ordinary network. The first line of Mafulu network was worked
on to the loops above it, so as to form a continuous line, in which
many loops of Mafulu work were attached to each loop of the line of
ordinary work above, the former being considerably smaller than the
latter. The rest of the network is similarly made in the Mafulu method,
each loop of each line being connected with a loop of the line above,
until the worker almost reaches the other end of the hammock, which
latter is finished off with ordinary network and a final base line, so
as to correspond with the commencing end. Often there are only four or
five loops of Mafulu network attached to each loop of ordinary network
above them; and I have seen hammocks in which the mesh of the ordinary
network part is much smaller, so that each loop of the bottom line of
this mesh has attached to it only one loop of the top line of Mafulu
mesh; and this last variation is common as regards carrying bags.

The hammocks are never coloured; but they are sometimes decorated
with a few Pandanus or _malage_ seeds hung from their borders.

The different forms of carrying bags have already been referred to. I
will now deal with their manufacture and colouring. They are made
exclusively by women; and the fibres used in their manufacture are
not the same as those employed for making nets and hammocks. I will
deal separately with the five forms already described by me.

Nos. 1 and 2 are made of either ordinary or Mafulu network, and are
never coloured. When these, or any other bags, are made of Mafulu
network, their elasticity is very great. No. 3 is always made of
Mafulu network, and coloured. No. 4 is made of Mafulu network, and
is sometimes coloured, and sometimes not. No. 5 is made of Mafulu
network, and is sometimes coloured. The string used in making this
bag is different from that used for the others, and is obtained from
the bark of a small shrub.

The question of manufacture introduces another form of bag (Plate 53,
Fig 3), which I may call No. 6. It is used by men for the purposes of
No. 4, and No 5 is also sometimes made in the same way. The method of
manufacture of No. 6 is, I was told, an uncommon one; and, though I
was able to procure one of these bags, I had not an opportunity of
observing the process by which it was made. The appearance of the
bag, however, suggests a process not unlike that of knitting. Its
outer surface displays a series of thick, strong trie ord-plaited,
vertical ridges, all close together, and looking very like the outside
ridges of a knitted woollen stocking; but on the inner surface these
ridges are not to be seen, and the general appearance of this inside
is one of horizontal lines. The material of this bag is much closer,
thicker and heavier than is that of any of the others.

The colouring of Nos. 3, 4 and 5 is not put into the netting after
its manufacture, as is done with bark cloth. The string itself is
dyed beforehand, and the lines of colour are worked into the bag in
the process of netting. The colouring is confined to the front of
the bag only, being the part which is visible when the bag is worn
hanging over the back or shoulder. Speaking generally, the colouring
is black; but there is often a little red introduced along with the
black. The pattern is in the general form of parallel horizontal
lines or stripes, which, however, are in places made to recess or
turn downwards or upwards at right angles, and subsequently turn
upwards or downwards again, and then continue horizontally as before,
thus giving variety to the mere design of straight horizontal lines;
and these rectangular breaks are often introduced at more or less
symmetrical intervals. There are other details in these patterns,
which can be observed in the plate. I have one of these bags the
lines in which are blue, red and yellow; but I think this colouring
is not usual. The pigments are obtained from the sources described
above with reference to bark cloth.

The colouring of my specimen of No. 6 bag is also worked into the
bag in the process of knitting, or whatever that process should be
called. But this colouring merely consists of four faint horizontal
lines of pale reddish-brown; and I was told that these bags are
generally uncoloured, or only slightly coloured in thin lines.

The mourning vests worn by chiefs' widows are, I believe, made of
Mafulu network; but unfortunately I did not see one of these, and so
cannot describe them.


Art, Design, etc.

Art and design among the Mafulu people are only of a simple and
primitive type. There is no carving or other decoration on their
houses, or even on their _emone,_ nor is there any on their stone
or wooden implements. Art and design, other than the arrangement
of feather ornaments, is, in fact, apparently confined to the very
simple designs scratched upon some of their broad abdominal belts,
smoking pipes and lime gourds and perhaps occasionally on one
or two other things, and to the plaited designs displayed in the
manufacture of other abdominal belts and of arm and leg ornaments
and plaited forehead ornaments and feather frames, and to the very
simple linear patterns in which some of their network is made, and
the ground-staining and pattern-colouring of their perineal bands,
dancing aprons and ribbons. As regards the latter, the designs are of
a very simple nature, never apparently representing anything either
realistically or conventionally, and being confined to geometric
designs of straight lines and bands, rectangular and zig-zag patterns
with coloured triangles within the zig-zag patterns, and spots. The
patterns of the perineal bands and dancing ribbons are very simple
indeed; but those of the dancing aprons are more elaborate, covering
a considerable surface of cloth, and often displaying a fair variety
of design on the same apron.

The Mafulu have no visible method of recording events or numbers,
or sending messages, either by marks or notches on sticks, or tying
of knots in string, or any other method, and they are quite unable
to grasp the meaning of a map.

The limited nature of the ideas of artistic design possessed by the
Mafulu people is, I think, a matter for surprise. They are believed
to have Papuan or Papuo-Melanesian blood in their veins. But, even
if they also have another distinct and more primitive ancestry of
their own, not associated with the Papuo-Melanesian types, or even
with the pure Papuan types, found on the coast and in the plains,
one would imagine that contact with these types would have caused
the Mafulu people to learn something of the more advanced art which
these other peoples display and that we should not have to record
a sudden drop from artistic designs embodying curves and natural
imitative art to a system confined to straight lines, zig-zags,
and spots. This contact with the coast and plain people, or at all
events with the latter, has certainly existed for some time back;
for, though the mutual fear and antagonism between coast and mountain
natives, which is usually found among savage peoples, has doubtless
existed in this case, and is even now not altogether eradicated, [91]
direct or indirect trading relationship, including in particular the
interchange of the stone implements and feathers of the mountains for
the shell decorations of the coast, is not a mere recent development
of the last few years only. It seems to me that the existence of this
decorative hiatus points to a rather small inherent sense of design in
the Mafulu mind. It may be, however, that the absence of imitative art,
to which I have already referred in connection with totemism and clan
badges, is partly due to the absence of totemism and of the imitative
stimulus, which, as Dr. Haddon has more than once pointed out, [92]
arises from it.






CHAPTER XIV

Music and Singing, Dancing and Toys and Games


Music and Singing.

The Mafulu people are naturally musical and have good musical
ears--much more so than is the case in Mekeo and on the coast,
thus conforming to what I believe to be a general rule that music is
usually more indigenous in hill country than it is in the plains. Their
instruments are the drum, the jew's-harp and a small flute; but the
flute is not a true Mafulu instrument, and has probably been acquired
from Mekeo.

The drum (Plate 75, Fig. 3) is like the Mekeo drum, but smaller,
and its open end is cut in deep indentations. The wooden body of the
drum is made from various trees. A pine tree is the favourite one;
but others are used, including a tree the native name of which is
_arive_, which word is also the native word for a drum. The membrane
is made of the skin of a reptile, probably the "iguana." The maker
of a drum must climb up the tree from the wood of which he is about
to make it, and there, until the drum is finished, he must remain
sitting among the branches, or, if these are inconvenient for the
purpose, he may erect a scaffold around the trunk of the tree, with
a platform on the top of it, and work upon that. Whilst working,
he must always keep the upper or tympanic end of his drum facing
the wind, the idea of this being that the wind gets into the drum,
and makes it musical. His food is brought to him, whilst in his tree,
by some woman, probably his mother if he is a bachelor, or his wife
if he is married, and he lets down a string by which he hauls it up;
but he is under no special restriction as to the food he may eat. There
is no superstition, such as is found among the Roro and Mekeo people,
compelling him, in the event of his seeing a woman during the making
of the drum, to throw it away and begin a new one.

The jew's-harp (Plate 20, Fig. 2), though seen in Mekeo, is, I was
told, as regards its manufacture, an instrument of the mountains. It
is made out of bamboo or palm, or some other tree having a hollow
or soft interior, from which is cut a piece about 8 or 10 inches
long. A portion of this piece is cut away longitudinally, leaving
for the making of the instrument only two-thirds or half, or even
one-third, of the convex outside stem circumference on one side and
the flat surface of the cut-away part on the other, and the latter
is then hollowed out, leaving, however, a solid head an inch or two
long at one end. The hollow piece thus produced is cut into three
longitudinal sections or strips, of which the two outside ones are
longer than the central one. The two outside strips are left at their
full width from the head downwards to a distance of 2 or 3 inches
from the other end, from which point they are cut away, very much
as one would cut away the divided nib of a quill pen, so that the
actual tips of these two strips are quite slender, being no broader
than their thickness. These two ends are tied together with fine
vegetable fibre. The centre strip, which is generally narrower than
the other two at its commencement by the head, is further reduced in
width by a more immediate and gradual process of paring down, and so
becomes a very slender vibrating tongue or reed, the tip of which goes
almost up to, but does not quite reach, the point at which the tips of
the two outer strips are bound together. A hole is bored through the
solid head; and through this hole is passed a thick string of native
make from 5 to 10 or 12 inches long, secured at one end by a knot
on the flat side of the head, to keep the string from slipping out,
and having at the other end a large, rough, ornamental tassel. The
tassel is generally in part composed of the untwisted fibres of the
string itself; but to these is added something else, such as a bunch
of feathers, or two smaller bunches of feathers; and among these may
be seen such miscellaneous articles as a fragment of dried-up fruit,
or a part of the backbone of a fish. For playing the instrument,
they place its tail end, with the hollow side inwards, to the mouth,
holding the extreme tip of that end in the fingers of the left hand,
and keep the tongue of the instrument in a constant state of vibration,
by smart, rapid, jerky pullings of the tasselled string.

The flute is merely a small simple instrument made out of a small
bamboo stem, with one or two holes bored in it.

All these instruments are played by both men and women; but the
jew's-harp and flute are regarded only as toys.

I believe the Mafulu people occasionally sing at dances to the beating
of the drums; but this is quite unusual; and they never sing to the
music of the jew's-harp or flute. Both men and women sing, generally
several or many together, not so often alone. Their songs are all
very simple, and are chiefly sung in unison or octaves. I was told
that they sometimes accomplish simple harmonies, the notes of which
may simultaneously rise or fall either with the same or different
intervals, or may rise and fall in contrary motion; or the harmony
may be produced by one man or part of the group sustaining a note,
whilst another changes it; and I myself heard an example of the latter
of these, and also heard singing in which, while a group of men were
singing the same simple air, some of them were occasionally singing
one part of it, whilst the others seemed to be singing another part,
thus producing a very simple catch or canon. I am not, however, quite
certain as to this. Their songs are both cheerful and plaintive;
but the latter predominate, and are mainly in the minor key. The
subjects of their songs are generally sentimental love, and include
ditties by young men about their sweethearts; and I believe that some
of their songs are indecent, though I am not sure of this. They also
have warlike songs; and, when a special event occurs, songs are often
composed with reference to it. For example, not long ago a chief was
taken by the authorities to Port Moresby, and died there; and songs
about this were sung all through his district. Anyone will compose a
topical song; in fact, a man will begin singing one in the _emone,_
making it up as he goes on, and the others will join. The men have a
very pretty custom of singing together very softly when at the end
of the day they have retired to their _emone,_ and have lain down
to sleep, the singing being very gentle, and producing what I can
only describe as a sort of crooning sound, like a lullaby or cradle
song. I once heard one of these songs sung by my carriers the last
thing at night as they lay beneath the floor of the building in which
I was sleeping; and the effect was absolutely charming.

As an example of Mafulu music I give the following, which, though not,
I fear, quite accurate, is I think a substantially correct version of
the music of a war song sung by the Mambule and Sivu communities in
connection with joint hostilities by them against another community,
and I have so far as possible added the song itself.


1st Verse: E! e! e! Si-vu Mambule juju la em u jeka le
2nd Verse: E! e! e! Noul e nul em u ieka la bulu iuju le


It will be observed that the first line is whistling only. I was
informed that it is a common practice to whistle the air before singing
the first verse; though I did not gather that it was always done. It
will also be noticed that simple harmonies occur in the fourth and
fifth bars. I cannot say whether the two parts in the music are
sustained or taken up by the voices upon any defined scheme, and,
if so, what that scheme is. Nor can I say whether the voices which
take the lower notes in the music are silent after the word _la,_ or
repeat that word in the sixth bar, with or without the upper voices,
in order to bring the tune to a full close. I have only given two
verses; and, as regards the song in question, I doubt if there were
any more. Unfortunately I am unable to translate the words, and can
only give the meanings of the following:--

_E! e! e!_ are merely meaningless exclamatory sounds, such as we have
in civilised songs. _Sivu_ is the name of a Fuyuge community close
to the Mission Station, being, in fact, the one referred to by me in
my chapter on communities. _Mambule_ is the name of another of these
communities, further away from the station, being, as stated in my
introductory chapter, the name of the community from which the name
Mafulu arises. I cannot give verbal explanations of any of the other
words; but I may say that a rough translation of the second verse is
"My village, your village is alike (or equal.)"






Dancing.

The Mafulu people, like other New Guinea natives, are fond of dancing,
and indulge in it extensively, especially in connection with feasts
and ceremonies.

Their dancing is of an exceedingly active and lively character. The
movements of the feet are lively and jumping, often half a hop and half
a run; and, whilst dancing, their heads are actively moving backwards
and forwards and to both sides. The general progressive movement of
a dancing party is slow, but not a crawl; and the progress along the
village enclosure is usually accomplished by a series of diagonal
advances, by which they zig-zag backwards and forwards across the
enclosure, and in this way gradually travel along it. Very often the
dancers divide themselves into two parties, which in their zig-zag
progress alternately approach and recede from each other. The dancers
are always facing in the direction in which at that moment they are
moving. Men and women never dance together, except at the big feast,
where they do so in the way already described.

This method of dancing is in striking contrast to that of the Mekeo
people, whose movements are generally very gentle and slow, those
of the feet, which are accompanied by a corresponding genuflexion,
downwards and outwards, being a slow slight step, usually barely
more than a shuffle, the feet being hardly lifted off the ground,
and those of the head being confined to a slow and sedate backwards
and forwards nodding. Also the progress of a party of Mekeo dancers
is generally very slow,--a crawl,--so much so as often to be barely
perceptible, perhaps two or three inches being accomplished at each
step, and the line of progress of a dancing party is usually a straight
line down the village enclosure; and more commonly, though not always,
the position of each dancer is sideways to the then actual direction
of progression. And in Mekeo women and men often dance together in
one group.

Another difference between Mafulu and Mekeo dancing is that among the
Mafulu, though the drum-beating and dancing go on simultaneously, the
singing, in which all the dancers and non-dancers of both sexes join,
does not usually take place during the actual dancing, but only during
periodic pauses, in which the drum-beating and dancing cease; whereas
in Mekeo the drum-beating, dancing and singing all go on continuously
and simultaneously. As regards these Mafulu pauses in the dancing, I
should explain that these are quite distinct from the resting pauses
(in which there is neither drum-beating, dancing, nor singing) which
are customary both among the Mafulu and the Mekeo people.

A further difference arises as regards the dancing decorations. Both
Mafulu and Mekeo natives have elaborate high framework head feather
decorations, which are worn by some, but not necessarily all, of the
dancers; and they are much ornamented about their bodies. But the
Mafulu people generally wear their finest and most beautiful feathers
on their backs, whereas among the Mekeo natives the head ornament is
the chief feature of the decoration; and in Mekeo any man who has not
a framework head decoration generally has sticking in his hair a tall,
upright feather, which sways slowly backwards and forwards in response
to the slow nodding movements of his head.

The special dancing ornaments worn by the Mafulu are the aprons worn
by women, the ribbons worn by men and women, the forehead ornaments
worn by men, the long shell nose ornaments worn by both, and the huge
head feather erections. But for dances the people generally wear
all the decorative finery they possess or are able to borrow; and
they usually with special care paint their faces in various colours,
and their bodies red.

The comparison above given between the dancing of the Mafulu people
and that of the people of Mekeo brings me to a suggestion, made to me
by Father Clauser, that the Mafulu mode of dancing had its origin in an
imitation of that of the red bird of paradise, and the Mekeo mode in an
imitation of that of the goura pigeon. In support of this suggestion
he gave me the following information concerning the dancing of these
birds, which may be compared with the description given above of the
dancing of the Mafulu and Mekeo natives respectively:--

The movements of the red birds of paradise, when dancing, are
remarkably lively, the birds hopping and jumping about the tree
branches and from branch to branch, and bobbing their heads backwards
and forwards and from side to side, almost as though they had gone
mad. The progression along the branches is fairly rapid; but there
is not apparently any continuous line of progression in any given
direction, and the birds seem to have a curious way of approaching
and receding from each other as they do so. The birds always face
in the direction in which they are at the time moving, and do not
dance sideways. Moreover, the dance is an alternation of wild dancing
and intermittent pauses; and during the dancing both the males and
females are silent, but during the pauses they are uttering their
songs or cries.

The dancing movements of the goura pigeons are a gentle slow shuffle,
and are accompanied by a slow bowing or nodding of the head. The
progressive movement is exceedingly slow, and is always a continuous
one in the same direction, and it is usually a sideways movement. The
dancing and accompanying cooing of the pigeons go on continuously
and simultaneously, and the rhythm of the latter is curiously like
the more usual rhythm of the Mekeo drums.

I have unfortunately never had opportunities of observing the dancing
of either of these birds, and so cannot personally vouch for the
correctness of the above descriptions of them. But Father Clauser
has often watched them, and he is undoubtedly a careful observer,
upon whose testimony we may rely; and I may add that my efforts since
my return to England to obtain evidence, confirmatory or otherwise,
of these descriptions have produced confirmation of some of the facts
stated, and have not produced any contradictions.

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