Robert W. Williamson - The Mafulu

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On the whole question of Kuni relationship it can, I think, hardly
be doubted that the Kuni have some characteristics which are clearly
those of the Mafulu and other central mountain tribes, and others which
are obviously those of the Papuo-Melanesians of the adjacent plains
and the coast beyond; and the only question seems to be the nature
and origin of the Kuni relationship to these two types of people. It
may be, as suggested by Father Egedi, that they are actually a cross
between these two mixed types; or, if the suggestion in my concluding
chapter as to the possible presence in these Mafulu and other mountain
people of Negrito blood be correct, it may be that the Kuni people
are merely another result of the general Negrito-Papuo-Melanesian
intercrossing, in which the Papuan and Melanesian elements have been
more predominant than they have been with the Mafulu.

CHAPTER XX

Conclusion

What is the origin of these Mafulu people, with their short stature,
small and somewhat rounded heads, slight but active build, sooty
brown skin, and frizzly hair, predominantly brown in colour, and with
their comparatively primitive ideas of organisation, and simple arts
and crafts?

The question is one of no mere local interest, as the answer to
it will probably be the answer to a similar question concerning
most, and perhaps all, of the other Papuan-speaking people of the
mountainous interior of the Central District of British New Guinea,
and may even be a key to the past early history of the entire island.

It has, I think, been hitherto believed that all these mountain people
had a mixed Papuan and Melanesian ancestry; but it was impossible to
be among them, as I was, for some time without being impressed by the
difference in appearance between them and the people of the adjacent
coast and plains, and suspecting that, though they had Papuan and
Melanesian blood in their veins, there was also some third element
there. And the name which obtruded itself upon my mind, whilst in
Mafulu, was Negrito.

The dark skin and the comparatively rounded heads, and, I think, some
shortness of stature are found elsewhere in British New Guinea; though
shortness of stature and rounded heads are unusual, and, I believe,
only local, and I do not know whether even the Papuan skin is ever
quite so dark as that of the Mafulu people. But the almost universal
shortness of stature, the comparatively slight, but strong and active,
build and the brown colour of the hair seemed entirely different from
anything that I had ever seen or read of as regards either the Papuans
or the Melanesians; and all of these, coupled with the tendency to
roundness of head, were consistent with a partial negrito ancestry.

Then on my return to England I learnt that dwarf people had been
found by the recent expedition into Dutch New Guinea organised by
the British Ornithologists' Union. Dr. Haddon has expressed the
opinion that these dwarf people and some dwarf people previously
found by Dr. Rudolph Poch in German New Guinea are all negritoes,
or negritoes crossed with Papuans. [128]

Dr. Keith, to whom I submitted all my notes upon the measurements
and physique of the Mafulu people, and who measured and examined the
three skulls which I brought home, wrote to me as follows:--

"I have examined the observations you have made on the Mafulu. From
your paper one can form, for the first time, a picture of the
physical characters of this tribe; but, when I proceed to assign
the tribe to its proper race, I am at once met by difficulties. In
my opinion the short stature, the pigmented skin, and the small
heads inclined to brachycephaly indicate a strong negrito element,
which we know is widely distributed in the far east, and certainly,
as we should expect, occurs in certain districts of New Guinea. In the
three crania there were characters which one could assign to Papuan,
as well as to a Melanesian stock.... A brown or reddish tinge is
seen not infrequently in the hair of negritoes. You will see that
I am inclined to look on the Mafulu as showing a very considerable
degree of negrito blood, and to regard the more primitive tribes of
New Guinea as being of this nature. If that were so, the Mafulu might
be regarded as belonging to the older population of New Guinea, both
Papuan and Melanesian having added something to their civilisation,
as well as their physical characters."

Dr. Keith then is inclined to agree with my suggestion concerning
the origin of the Mafulu; and Dr. Haddon, having seen my notes upon
physique, said that he endorsed the views expressed by Dr. Keith. And
if the view suggested be correct as regards the Mafulu or Fuyuge
people, I am prepared to say that from what I have heard of the other
mountain Papuan-speaking people of that part of New Guinea, including
the Oru Lopiku (Kovio), Boboi and Ambo people, I am convinced that it
must be correct as regards them also, though the relative predominance
of the three strains may well vary with these different people.

I am hardly qualified to enter into the discussion as to the
relationship, if any, existing between the principal hitherto known
dwarf races, the Pygmies of Central Africa, the Semang of the Malay
Peninsula, the Andamanese and the Aetas of the Philippine Islands,
or to deal with the question whether or not all or some of them are
to be grouped together as forming a distinct and related type, or
are to be regarded as unconnected in the sense that each of them is
merely a local variation, sharing a common ancestry with some other
taller negroid race.

As, however, my suggestion of a partial negrito origin of the
Mafulu people necessarily brings me into contact with this wider
question, and the latter is still one upon which opinions differ,
I may perhaps briefly tabulate some of the chief physical characters
of the Andamanese, the Semang, the Aetas, the dwarf people recently
found in Dutch New Guinea and the Mafulu. I think I may omit the
African pygmies from my tables.

_Stature._

Andamanese 4' 10 1/2''

This is the figure given by Mr. Portman (_Journal of
Anthropological Institute_, vol. 25, p. 366) and by Dr. Haddon
(_Races of Man and their Distribution_, p. 9), and is very near
the 4'10 3/4'' given by Mr. Man (_The Andaman Islanders_, p. 5),
and adopted by Messrs. Skeat and Blagden (_Pagan Races of the
Malay Peninsula_, p. 573).

Semang 4' 10 3/4''
Skeat and Blagden (_Pagan Races_, &c., p. 573) and Haddon (Races
of Man, &c., p. 9).

Aetas 4' 10''

This is Dr. Haddon's figure (_Races of Man, &c._, p. 9), and it
is within half an inch of the 4' l0 1/2'' given by Dr. Semper
(_Journal of Anthropology_ for October, 1870, p. 135). Dr. Meyer
gives a number of varying measurements (see _Journal of
Anthropological Institute,_ vol. 25, p. 174), and Reed gives the
average of 48 males, some of whom were not pure types, only 4' 9"
(_Negritos of Zambales_, p. 32).

Dutch New Guinea dwarfs 4' 9''

Captain Rawling (_Geographical Journal_, vol. 38, p. 245).

Mafulu 5' 1''

It is merely suggested by me that they are _partly_ negrito,
which, if correct, would explain the somewhat higher stature.

_General Physique._

Andamanese

Well proportioned, and with good muscular development (Man,
_Journal of Anthropological Institute_, vol. 12, pp. 72 and 73).

Semang

Sturdily built (Haddon, _Races of Man, &c._, p. 9).

Aetas

Well formed and sprightly (Earle, _Papuans_, p. 123), and with
limbs which, corresponding to their stature, are uncommonly
slender, but well formed (Semper, _Journal of Anthropology_ for
October, 1870, p. 135). Well-built little men with broad chests,
symmetrical limbs, and well-developed muscles (Reed, _Negritos
of Zambales,_ p. 34).

Dutch New Guinea dwarfs

Of sturdy build (Rawling, _Geographical Journal_, vol. 38, p. 241).

Mafulu

Fairly strong and muscular, but rather slender and slight in
development.

_Cephalic Index._

Andamanese 82

This is Dr. Haddon's figure (_Races of Man, &c._,
p. 9). Messrs. Skeat and Blagden say they are decidedly
brachycephalic (_Pagan Races, &c._, p. 573).

Semang 78.9

Dr. Haddon's figure (_Races of Man, &c._, p. 9). Skeat and Blagden
describe them as brachycephalic to mesatecephalic (_Pagan Races,
&c._, p. 34).

Aetas 80

Dr. Haddon's figure (_Races of Man, &c._, p. 9). Skeat and Blagden
describe them as decidedly brachycephalic (_Pagan Races, &c._,
p. 573). Reed gives 82 as the average (_Negritos of Zambales_,
p. 34).

Dutch New Guinea dwarfs 80.2

This figure is calculated by me from the actual length and breadth
given by Captain Rawling (_Geographical Journal_, vol. 38, p. 245).

Mafulu 80

_Nasal Index._

Andamanese ?

Semang 101

Calculated by me from average of actual measurements of 5 people
given by Skeat and Blagden (_Pagan Races, &c._, p. 577).

Aetas ?

Reed records highly varying indices, the bulk of which were
hyperplatyrhine (87.9-108.8), and nearly all the others of which
were ultraplatyrhine (109 and over) (_Negritos of Zambales_,
pp. 34, 35).

Dutch New Guinea dwarfs 80.9

Calculated by me from Captain Rawling's actual figures.

Mafulu 84.3

_Colour of Skin._

Descriptions of this are so general, and so much depends in each case
upon the relative meanings attached by each writer to the terms used
by him, that I prefer to depend as regards the Andamanese, Semang,
and Aetas upon Dr. Haddon's descriptions, which are doubtless based
upon his comparison of those given in previous literature.

Andamanese

Very dark (_Races of Man, &c._, p. 9).

Semang

Dark chocolate brown, approximating to black. (_Ibid._).

Aetas

Dark sooty brown (_Ibid._).

Dutch New Guinea dwarfs

Brown (Rawling, _Geographical Journal_, vol. 38, p. 245).

Mafulu

Dark sooty brown.

_Texture of Hair._

This is frizzly in all cases, as with other negroids, the word "woolly"
often used being, I imagine, intended to imply frizzly.

_Colour of Hair._

This being a point which seems to me to be rather interesting,
I propose to quote various descriptions.

Andamanese

Varies from sooty black to dark brown, old gold, red and light
brown; and, though these may be the colours of individual hairs,
the general appearance is sooty black or yellowish-brown.
Portman (_History of our Relations with the Andamanese_, p. 30).

Varies between black, greyish-black and sooty, the last perhaps
predominating.
Man (_The Andaman Islanders_, p. II).

Black, with a reddish tinge.
Haddon (_Races of Man, &c._, p. 9).

Semang

Brownish-black, not a bluish-black like that of the Malays.
Skeat and Blagden (_Pagan Races, &c.,_ p. 46).

Brownish-black.
Haddon (_Races of Man, &c.,_ p. 9).

Aetas

Brown-black, shining.
Semper (_Journal of Anthropology_ for October, 1870, p. 135).

Rich dark brown.
Writer of article on Semper's work (_Id_.).

Varying from a dark seal-brown to black.
Meyer (_Journal of Anthropological Institute_, vol. 25, p. 174).

Dirty black colour, in some instances _sun-burned at top to_
a reddish-brown. [The italics are mine.]
Reed (_Negritos of Zambales_, p. 35).

Black, sometimes tinged with red.
Haddon (_Races of Man_, &c., P. 9).

Dutch New Guinea dwarfs.

Black.
Rawling (_Geographical Journal_, vol. 38, p. 245).

The hair of some of the pygmies was decidedly _dark_ brown.
Statement made to me by Mr. Walter Goodfellow.

Hair of 3 men (out of 24) distinctly not black, a sort of dirty
rusty brown or rusty black colour; all others black-haired.
Extract supplied to me by Dr. Wollaston from his Diary.

Mafulu.

Generally dark brown, often quite dark, approaching to black,
and sometimes perhaps quite black. But frequently lighter, and
often not what we in Europe should call dark.

I think that the above tables indicate that, though there are
differences, there are elements of similarity between (i) the Mafulu
people, (2) the Dutch New Guinea dwarfs, and (3) one or more of the
Andamanese, Semang and Aetas; but in my comparison of the Mafulu
and the dwarfs of Dutch New Guinea with the other previously known
dwarf races I would specially draw attention to their similarity in
shortness of stature and (as regards most of the Mafulu and a few of
the Dutch New Guinea people) colour of hair; and this impels me to
venture to say a few words on the larger question.

I have searched through much existing literature concerning the
various hitherto discovered dwarf races of the world with reference
to the question whether, even assuming that these people have an
original primary ancestry from which the taller negroid races also
are descended, they must be regarded as having become a related type,
separate and distinct from the latter, as now existing, or whether
they must all be treated as merely separate local variations, each of
them having failed to develop, or retrograded, and in other respects
become different in type from taller negroid races among or near
to whom they are found. And I am struck by the fact that, though
the natural tendency to local variation in stature, shape of head,
colour and other matters is brought forward in support of the latter
theory, no one seems, in connection with the general question, to have
noted the fact that, whilst the hair colour of negroes, Papuans and
Melanesians is black, the hair of all these various dwarf people seems
to be predominantly brown, and that this variation explanation, if
regarded as applying to these dwarf races separately and independently
of one another, involves a remarkable coinciding double variation
(in stature and predominant colour of hair) exhibited by all these
dwarf people as compared with the taller negroids.

On the other hand, if there has been an original separation of
descendants of common primary ancestors of all the negroid races,
which, through variation, has resulted in two main types, one
predominantly full-sized and always black-haired, and the other always
short and predominantly brown-haired, and the pygmies (negritoes and
negrilloes) are to be regarded as being all descendants of the latter
type, who have since for some reason become geographically separated,
there would appear to be nothing remarkable in the double variation.

But in that case we are, I take it, justified in regarding the dwarf
races as being a separate type, to be distinguished from the taller
races; and, if that be so, there appears to be substantial ground
for thinking that the Dutch New Guinea dwarf people and the Mafulu
people are in part descended from people of that type.

I may also draw attention (for what they are worth as points of detail)
to the facts already noted, that the Semang and Andamanese, who bury
their ordinary folk under ground, adopt tree burial, and apparently,
as regards the Semang, platform burial not on trees also, as a more
honourable method of disposing of the bodies of important people and
chiefs; and that as regards these matters the Mafulu custom is similar.

Also the very simple ideas of the Mafulu, as compared with Papuans
and Melanesians, in matters of social organization, implements,
arts and crafts, religion and other things may well, I think, be
associated with a primitive negrito origin.

If the Mafulu people may be properly regarded as having a negrito
ancestry, distinct in type from that of either the Papuans or the
Melanesians, the negrito element would presumably be the earlier one,
Papuan and Melanesian infusion having occurred subsequently. Indeed
it may well be believed that the negrito element is derived from
an original ancestry who were probably the earlier inhabitants of
New Guinea.

CHAPTER I

A Grammar of the Fuyuge Language

Translated and Edited by _Sidney H. Ray_, M.A., from the Manuscript
of the _Rev. Father Egedi_, S.C.

Phonology.

I. Alphabet.

Vowels: _a, e, i, o, u_.

Consonants: _k, g; t, d; p, b, f, v; m, n; r, l; s; y_.

The vowels are pronounced as in Italian, the consonants as in
English. The sound of the Italian _c_ is also found, but is rare.

It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between _o_ and
_u_. Ex. _ombo(le)_ or _umbo(le)_, belly.

_G, b_, and _d_, are often preceded by a nasal, sometimes constant
(and then marked in the vocabulary), sometimes variable according
to the pronunciation of individuals. For the nasals _m_ is employed
before _p_ and _b_, and _n_ before other consonants.

The _i_ and _y_ are very difficult to distinguish, especially when
they follow one another. Ex. _iye_ or _ye_, or _ie_, tree; _iangolo_
or _yangolo_, ear. Father Egidi wrote _j_ for _y_.

The _l_ and _r_ are very difficult to determine. Ex. _aliete_ or
_ariete_, to salute; _naul'i_ and _naur'i_, my eye. In the vocabulary
_l_ is used generally.

The _s_ is often _ts_. Ex. tsivu and sivu; su(le) and tsu(le
grass. Also in the future suffix _t_ or _ts_. Ex. _nati_ or _natsi_,
I will eat.

II. Elision.

A great number of Fuyuge words terminate in an open syllable of which
the vowel is generally _e_. This syllable is usually omitted at the end
of a phrase, and nearly always when the following word commences with
a consonant. But if the following word begins with a vowel the final
_e_ only falls away. Thus the complete form of a word is rarely used,
except to avoid confusion, or for the sake of emphasis. The following
are examples:

_ovo(le),_ pig: _ovol' ovoge,_ boar, _ovo momombe,_ sow.

_ifa(ne),_ beautiful: _ifa ta,_ very fine, _ifan' aka,_ less fine.

_da(le),_ who? _nu da?_ who art thou? _dal' aua?_ who is this?

_i(nde),_ to give: _ne i,_ give me, _ne ind' u,_ give it to me.

_-a(le)_, with: _andal' a?_ with what? _indiv' al' ongai_, cut with
the knife.

_a(le),_ here: _a mo ma?_ must I put it here? _al' itatsi,_ he will
sleep here.

_u(ne),_ and: _kitoval' u kene,_ black parroquet and white, _amb'
un' ale,_ banana and sugar cane.

Note (1). The _b_ in an elision sometimes changes to _p._ Ex. _obe,_
bud, _op'indie,_ to bud.

(2). Sometimes two syllables are elided: Ex. _taume, tame,_ from which
comes _ovo ta,_ a tame pig, and _ovo taum' ifa,_ the tame pig is good.

(3). Words which do not end in _e,_ rarely elide a final vowel, and
never the last syllable. Ex. _kuku,_ tobacco, _kuk' oko nei,_ give me
a little tobacco; _na,_ I, _nu,_ thee, _ongo_ at the foot of, _na n'
ong' ando,_ I am at thy feet; _umbubi, wash, umbub' u,_ wash him.

(4). Some verbs in _-ri_ or _-li_ however often omit this
syllable. Ex. _ivo(ri)_ to wipe, _na ga kodig' ivo,_ I have wiped the
plates; _tsimi(li),_ to lick, _ama tsimi,_ lick the salt; _itu(lili)_
to split, _ol' itu,_ split the wood.

In the grammar and vocabulary the syllable which may be elided is
enclosed in a bracket, and in compound words and phrases the elision
is marked with an apostrophe, as in the preceding examples.

III. Vowel Changes.

1. A final _o_ sometimes changes to _u_ if the word following begins
with a vowel.

Ex. _oko,_ some, a little, _kuk' oku ind' uno,_ give him some tobacco
to smoke.

2. An initial _o,_ on the other hand, sometimes changes to _u_ when
the preceding word begins with _a._

Ex. _ongo,_ under; _na_ ungo ando, remain at my feet.

3. The final _a_ of the word _na,_ I, becomes _e_ when it is followed
by the verb _indi_ in the imperative.

Ex. _ne i, ne inde,_ give me, but _nuga na indi,_ thou hast given me.

Nouns.

I. Gender.

There is no modification or grammatical difference to mark gender.

Sex is indicated by separate words in the case of human beings:
_an(e)_ man, _me(le)_ boy, _ena(ne)_ brother, _amu(le)_ woman,
_ame(le)_ girl, _eta(de)_ sister.

For mammals the words _avoge,_ male, or _momobe,_ female, follow the
noun: _ovol' avoge,_ boar, _ovo' momobe,_ sow.

Dr. Strong notes that the sex of birds is sometimes denoted by the
adjective _ifa(ne),_ good, _i.e.,_ "ornamented," for the male bird, and
_ifan' ul' amu,_ the "wife of the ornamented" for the female: _uruv'
ifa,_ the male hornbill; _uruv' ifan ul' amu,_ the female hornbill.

II. Number.

Only nouns indicating persons have been found with plurals. These
are formed by changing the final _e_ to _i._ Sometimes the _e_ is
changed to _a;_ this may indicate the dual.

Ex. _amu(le)_ woman, plur. amuli and amula; _so(le),_ young man,
plur. _soli_ and _sola; me(le),_ child, plur. _meli_ and _mela._

Note (1). The word _a(ne)_ man, has a double plural in two different
meanings: _ani,_ the men; _ake(da)_ the married men.

(2). The shortened form of the word is often used in the plural. This
naturally is the same as the singular.

III. Case.

1. There is no modification of the noun to express case, but the
equivalents of cases are shown by suffixes. The vocative alone often
takes a final _a_ as in the interrogative form.

Ex. _Tayova, a tsia!_ Tayo, come here!

The subject, direct object, and indirect object are however easily
recognised by their position in the sentence. The subject comes
first, followed by the direct object, then the indirect object if
there be one, with the verb at the end. If there are complements they
immediately precede the word which governs them.

Ex. _naga kuku nu inde,_ I tobacco to thee gave; _Baiv' u mega nembe
u fod' al' ema,_ Baiva's child bird his bow-with killed; _nuni ake
mu letsi gatsi,_ thou men their village-to will-go.

2. The genitive is expressed by means of the possessive adjective.

Ex. _ovo'u ma,_ hair of the pig, lit. pig his hair.

3. Persons belonging to a place sometimes omit the adjective.

Ex. _A Kotsi,_ a man of Kotsi; _An'Alol',_ a man of Alole; _Alol'
amu,_ a woman of Alole; _Ambov'amu,_ a woman of Ambove; _Tseluku ul'
akeda,_ men of Tseluku.

4. Position in a place, or motion to or from a place is shown in
the following ways. When the noun has a shortened for _-tsi_ is
suffixed. If there is no short form the final _e_ of the noun is
changed to _i_ and _-tsi_ is added.

Ex. _nani etsi ando,_ I am in the house; _nuni bulitsi gatsi,_ thou
wilt go to the garden; _naga Mambutsi l'a tela,_ I have come here
from Mambo.

Note (1). Some proper names of places do not take the suffix _-tsi._
Ex. _amul' Alol' itatsi,_ the woman will sleep at Alole.

(2). Other proper names, especially those of mountains and the
villages built on them, take the suffix _-tu_ (upon) instead of _-tsi._
Ex. _Falitu gatsi,_ I will go to Faliba, lit. I will go upon Faliba.

IV. Interrogative Nouns.

The noun in Fuyuge has a special form to indicate the interrogative. If
the noun ends in _e,_ this vowel is changed to _a._ If already ending
in _a,_ the _a_ takes a strong accent. To any other vowel ending _a_
is added.

Ex. _ovo(le)_ pig: interrog. _ovola?_ is it a pig?

_bulomakao,_ cow, &c.: interrog. _bulomakaoa?_ is it a cow?

_kuku,_ tobacco: interrog. _kukua?_ is it tobacco?

_kupa,_ sweet potato: interrog. _kupa?_ is it a sweet potato?

V. Demonstrative Nouns.

These are similar to the Interrogative Nouns and are formed by the
addition of the syllables _-aua, -ana,_ or _-ala_ instead of _a._
This form is both affirmative and interrogative.

Ex. _oyand' aua?_ is it a flower? or, it is a flower.

_Tayov' aua,_ it is Tayo; _kuku aua,_ it is tobacco; _an' ala,_
it is a man; _Ambov' ana,_ it is Ambo.

Adjectives.

I. Adjectives have no Gender. In the expression of Case, Interrogative
and Demonstrative forms they are the same as Nouns.

Ex. _a baibe, amu baibe,_ man tall, woman tall; _uli baibitsi mau,_
pot big-in put it, put it in the big pot; _ifana?_ is it good? _ifan'
ala,_ it is good.

II. Adjectives of Quality.

1. Number.

Number is expressed as with nouns by changing _e_ to _i._ Some
adjectives in _-a_ add _i._ There are no adjectives with the plural
in _-a._ Some adjectives in _-a(ne)_ have the plural _-ai._

Ex. _kakava(ne)_ strong, plur. _kakavani; safa(le),_ plur. _safa(li);
isosonga,_ idle, plur. _isosongai; aka(ne)_ small, plur. _akai._

2. Agreement.

The adjective always follows the noun which it qualifies, and takes
the suffix of the noun.

Ex. _a sesada,_ fence long; _emo gai,_ house old; _kodige kisiakatsi,_
plate little-in: _indiv' amoja(le)_ knife blunt-with; _koua baibitu,_
box big-on.

Sometimes the pronoun _u(ne),_ his, is placed between the noun and
the adjective.

The meaning of this is uncertain, but it appears to be more emphatic,
as _e.g._ "the road which is good," "the house which is bad."

Ex, _enamb' un' ifa,_ the good road, _em' u koi,_ the bad house.

The adjective used as predicate immediately follows the noun, without
a substantive verb.

Ex. _an' ala gududuba,_ that man (is) stingy; _nuni sesada,_ thou
(art) tall; _amu safali,_ the women (are) weak.

Note.--When the subject is represented by a pronoun of the first or
second person dual or plural, the predicate remains singular.

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