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Various - Harvard Psychological Studies, Volume 1

V >> Various >> Harvard Psychological Studies, Volume 1





TABLE II.

1 2 3 4
S C S C S C S C
I. 21.5 23.5 14.5 35 22.5 21.5 15 27
II. 35.5 21.5 32.5 48 32 33.5 32.5 21.5
III. 27.5 39 20.5 47.5 24.5 46.5 8 22.5
IV. 31.5 26.5 38 23.5 34.5 22 24 29.5
V. 48 50 48 39.5 41.5 51.5 51 47.5
VI. 11.5 35 26.5 28.5 21 33 29 17
VII. 29.5 35 47 47 10.5 52 29.5 33.5
VIII. 12.5 41 32 28.5 13 26.5 17 41.5
IX. 10.5 25.5 27.5 34.5 14.5 44 33 44.5
X. 24 25.5 20 23 16.5 28 23 21
XI. 46 46.5 31.5 53.5 18 53.5 27 50.5

298 369 338 408.5 248.5 412 289 356

5 6 7 Averages.
S C S C S C S C
I. 20.5 21 14.5 27 7.5 37.5 16.57 27.50
II. 31.5 32 50 45.5 49.5 39.5 37.64 34.50
III. 19.5 32.5 13 31 29 18 20.28 33.85
IV. 40.5 46.5 27 30.5 26 32 31.64 30.07
V. 47.5 47.5 50.5 48.5 38 38 46.35 46.07
VI. 14.5 29 14 33 21 28.5 19.64 29.14
VII. 25.5 43 42.5 30 28 41.5 30.35 40.28
VIII. 8 34 24 27 33 14.5 19.92 30.42
IX. 41.5 27 29.5 27.5 29.5 28 26.57 33.00
X. 10.5 36.5 17 27 18 25 18.42 26.57
XI. 21.5 53.5 40.5 43.5 30 45 30.64 49.42

281 402.5 322.5 370.5 309.5 347.5 27.10 34.62

_S:_ Outline simple.

_C:_ Outline complex.

In this and the following tables the numbers in the body of
the columns represent, in each case, the combined result of
two observations, in one of which the simpler figure was to
the left, in the other the more complex. The figures were
transposed in order to eliminate any possible space error.

General average: _S_, 27.10 sec.; _C_, 34.62 sec.


Can anything be said, based on the reports, by way of explanation of
the advantage which complexity gives? In the first place, the attitude
of the subject towards his image seems to have been much the same as
his attitude towards an external object: to his observation the image
became, in fact, an object. "When the image was gone," says one, "my
eyes seemed to be in search of something." And occasionally the one
ideated object was felt to exert an influence over the other. "The
complex seemed to affect the form of the simpler figure." "It seemed
that the complex actually had the effect of diminishing the size of
the simpler figure." From time to time the images varied, too, in
distinctness, just as the objects of perception vary, and the superior
distinctness of the more complex was frequently noted by the subjects.
Now the importance of the boundary line in perception is well
understood. It seems to have a corresponding importance here. "What I
notice more in the simple figure," says one observer, "is the mass; in
the complex, the outline." "The simple seemed to lose its form," says
another, "the complex did not; the jagged edge was very distinct." And
it is not improbable, in view of the reports, that irregularities
involving change of direction and increase in extent of outline
contributed mainly to the greater persistence of the more complicated
image, the 'mass' being in both figures approximately the same. Nor
did the advantage of the broken line escape the notice of the subject.
"I found myself," is the comment of one, "following the contour of the
star--exploring. The circle I could go around in a twinkle." Again,
"the points entered the field before the rest of the figure." And
again, "the angle is the last to fade away."

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

Now this mental exploration involves, of course, changes in the
direction of the attention corresponding in some way to changes in the
direction of the lines. Does this shifting of the attention involve
ideated movements? There can be little doubt that it does. "I felt an
impulse," says one, "to turn in the direction of the image seen." And
the unconscious actual movements, particularly those of the eyes,
which are associated with ideated movements, took place so often that
it is hard to believe they were ever wholly excluded. Such movements,
being slight and automatically executed, were not at first noticed.
The subjects were directed, in fact, to attend in all cases primarily
to the appearance and disappearance of the images, and it was only
after repeated observations and questions were put, that they became
aware of associated movements, and were able, at the close of an
observation, to describe them. After that, it became a common report
that the eyes followed the attention. And as we must assume some
central influence as the cause of this movement, which while the eyes
were closed could have no reflex relation to the stimulus of light, we
must impute it to the character of the ideas, or to their physical
substrates.

The idea, or, as we may call it, in view of the attitude of the
subject, the internal sensory impression, thus seems to bear a double
aspect. It is, in the cases noted, at once sensory and motor, or at
any rate involves motor elements. And the effect of the activity of
such motor elements is both to increase the distinctness of the image
and to prolong the duration of the process by which it is apprehended.
The sensory process thus stands in intimate dependence on the motor.
Nor would failure to move the eyes or any other organ with the
movement of attention, if established, be conclusive as against the
presence of motor elements. A motor impulse or idea does not always
result in apparent peripheral movement. In the suppressed speech,
which is the common language of thought, the possibility of incipient
or incomplete motor innervations is well recognized. But where the
peripheral movement actually occurs it must be accounted for. And as
the cause here must be central, it seems reasonable to impute it to
certain motor innervations which condition the shifting of the mental
attitude and may be incipient merely, but which, if completed, result
in the shifting of the eyes and the changes of bodily attitude which
accompany the scrutiny of an external object. And the sensory process
is, to some extent at least, conditioned by the motor, if, indeed, the
two are anything more than different aspects of one and the same
process.[7]

[7] Cf. Muensterberg, H.: 'Grundzuege d. Psychologie,' Bd. I.,
Leipzig, 1900, S. 532.

But where, now, the subject is occupied in mentally tracing the
boundaries of one of his two images he must inhibit all motor
innervations incompatible with the innervations which condition such
tracing: the rival process must cease, and the rival image will fade.
He may, it is true, include both images in the same mental sweep. The
boundary line is not the only possible line of movement. In fact, we
may regard this more comprehensive glance as equivalent to an
enlargement of the boundaries so as to include different mental
objects, instead of different parts of but one. Or, since the
delimitation of our 'objects' varies with our attitude or aim, we may
call it an enlargement of the object. But in any case the mental
tracing of a particular boundary or particular spatial dimensions
seems to condition the sense of the corresponding content, and through
inhibition of inconsistent movements to inhibit the sense of a
different content. No measure of the span of consciousness can, of
course, be found in these reports. The movements of the attention are
subtle and swift, and there was nothing in the form of the experiments
to determine at any precise instant its actual scope. All we need
assume, therefore, when the images are said to be seen together, is
that neither has, for the time being, any advantage over the other in
drawing attention to itself. If in the complete observation, however,
any such advantage appears, we may treat it as a case of inhibition.
By definition, an idea which assumes a place in consciousness which
but for itself, as experiment indicates, another might occupy,
inhibits the other.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]


TABLE III.

1 2 3 4 5 6
S L S L S L S L S L S L
I. 22 24 19.5 23 20 26 21.5 21 21 26 18 31
II. 31 39 31.5 36 15 32.5 11 22.5 13.5 24.5 7.5 23
III. 10.5 43.5 12 21.5 13 14.5 19 10.5 18.5 30.5 7 18.5
IV. 34.5 29.5 29.5 24 40.5 33 30.5 32.5 15 30 26 30
V. 31.5 30 42 45 39 51 47 49.5 41 37 46 45
VI. 22 20 20.5 22 23.5 22 25 16 24 20 22 25.5
VII. 53.5 53.5 23.5 23.5 47.5 47.5 51 52 52.5 53 51 52
VIII. 34 40.5 23 29 21 22 22 37.5 34.5 35 27.5 28
IX. 19.5 45 19.5 46 22 23.5 23.5 48 26 45.5 19 44.5
X. 16 30.5 12 35 21 24.5 8.5 41 15.5 33 19 28
XI. 38.5 36.5 21 48.5 30 54.5 31 55.5 32 54 12 50

313 392 254 353.5 292.5 381.5 290 386 293.5 388.5 255 375.5

7 8 9 10 Averages
S L S L S L S L S L
I. 20.5 31.5 21.5 28.5 22.5 28 22.5 26 20.90 26.50
II. 14.5 17.5 19 20 11 4.5 7 30.5 16.10 25.00
III. 10 22 8.5 26 17 16 8 16 12.35 21.90
IV. 27.5 28.5 35 30.5 23.5 46 27.5 49.5 28.95 33.35
V. 40.5 35 24.5 22.5 21 31 21.5 21.5 35.40 36.75
VI. 22.5 18.5 11.5 21 20 27 22.5 24 21.35 21.60
VII. 44.5 46.5 52 51 33.5 49 39.5 50.5 44.85 47.85
VIII. 19.5 20 21 27 19.5 27.5 18.5 22.5 24.05 29.60
IX. 18.5 46 13 42 20 42 18.5 43 19.95 44.90
X. 18.5 24 20.5 21 20.5 22 18.5 28.5 17.00 28.75
XI. 21 49 32 53.5 38 53.5 34.5 46.5 29.00 50.15

257.5 338.5 258.5 343 246.5 346.5 238.5 358.5 24.54 33.30

_L_: large. _S_: small.

General average, _S_, 24.54 sec.; _L_, 33.30 sec.


_Series No. III._--In the third series, where the variant is the
extent of (gray) surface exposed, the preponderance is in favor of the
image corresponding to the larger object. This shows an appearance of
some 33 seconds per minute as against 24 for the smaller (Table III.).
Here the most obvious thing in the reports, aside from the relative
durations, is the greater vividness of the favored image. Something,
no doubt, is due to the greater length of boundary line and other
spatial dimensions involved in the greater size. And it is this
superiority, and the ampler movements which it implies, which were
probably felt by the subject who reports 'a feeling of expansion in
the eye which corresponds to the larger image and of contraction in
the other.' But the more general comment is as to the greater
vividness of the larger image. "The larger images seem brighter
whichever side they are on." "The larger is a little more distinct, as
if it were nearer to me." "Large much more vivid than small." Such are
the reports which run through the series. And they point, undoubtedly,
to a cumulative effect, corresponding to a well-known effect in
sensation, in virtue of which greater extension may become the
equivalent of greater intensity. In other words, the larger image made
the stronger impression. Now in external perception the stronger
impression tends to hold the attention more securely; that is, it is
more effective in producing those adjustments of the sensory organs
which perceptive attention implies. So here what was noticed as the
superior brightness and distinctness of the larger image may be
supposed to imply some advantage in the latter in securing those
adjustments of the mental attitude which were favorable to the
apprehension of that image. Advantage means here, again, in part at
least, if the considerations we have urged are sound, inhibition of
those motor processes which would tend to turn attention to a rival.
And here, again, the adjustment may reach no external organ. An
incipient innervation, which is all that we need assume as the
condition of a change of mental attitude, would suffice to block, or
at least to hamper, inconsistent innervations no more complete than
itself.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.]


TABLE IV.

1 2 3 4
G W G W G W G W
I. 15.5 28.5 21.5 32.5 20 33 21 28.5
II. 39.5 23 22.5 22.5 19 20.5 35.5 17.5
III. 13.5 12.5 32 4.5 8.5 10 11.5 11.5
IV. 30 33.5 38 36.5 36 39.5 37.5 13.5
V. 33.5 32.5 34.5 32 33 35 45 36.5
VI. 15 22 21 21 18.5 22 12 22
VII. 53.5 50 43 46 54.5 55 56 56
VIII. 15.5 24.5 24 25 20 13 16.5 21
IX. 17.5 44 9.5 46 18.5 43.5 16 42
X. 25.5 19 29.5 19 21 20.5 23.5 18
XI. 35 42.5 13 29.5 18.5 46 16 38
294 332 288.5 314.5 267.5 338 290.5 304.5

5 6 7 8
G W G W G W G W
I. 24 26.5 23.5 25 19.5 30.5 21 29
II. 21 29.5 20 18.5 29 16.5 28.5 14
III. 20.5 8.5 11 11.5 10 14 23 16.5
IV. 39.5 28.5 34.5 22.5 23 30.5 33.5 18
V. 45 53 48 51 45 29 32.5 34.5
VI. 21.5 28 18 32 20.5 19 21.5 18
VII. 54.5 56 54.5 54.5 45 46 49 49
VIII. 24 26.5 23.5 22.5 24 17.5 31 31.5
IX. 16 44 14 43.5 9 43.5 13 44.5
X. 24.5 18 24 21.5 25.5 24 22 22.5
XI. 20.5 8.5 15 36.5 33 23 34 29
311 327 286 339 283.5 293.5 309 306.5

9 10 11 12 Averages.
G W G W G W G W G W
I. 25 25.5 22.5 21 25 26.5 27 21.5 22.95 27.33
II. 20 25 15 20 29 32 13.5 20 24.37 21.58
III. 12 20 12.5 17.5 10.5 21 3 23 14.00 14.25
IV. 33 19.5 35.5 28 21.5 34.5 25.5 26.5 32.29 27.58
V. 51 50 35 30.5 40.5 54.5 45.5 52.5 40.70 40.91
VI. 13 29.5 25 33.5 28.5 23 23.5 27.5 19.83 24.79
VII. 46.5 39.5 38.5 44.5 43.5 47.5 42.5 34.5 48.41 48.20
VIII. 17.5 25.5 22 15.5 21 29 22.5 21.5 21.79 22.75
IX. 13 43.5 12.5 41.5 15 42 11 40 13.75 43.16
X. 24 24 27 19 25 21.5 23.5 23.5 24.58 20.87
XI. 13.5 49 2.5 43 14 34 23 22 19.83 33.41
268.5 351 248 314 273.5 365.5 260.5 312.5 25.61 29.53

_G:_ Gray. _W:_ White.

General average: _G_, 25.61 sec.; _W_, 29.53 sec.


_Series No. IV._--This and the next following series do not suggest
much that differs in principle from what has been stated already. It
should be noted, however, that in the white-gray series (Table IV.)
the persistence of the gray in ideation surprised the subjects
themselves, who confessed to an expectation that the white would
assert itself as affectively in ideation as in perception. But it is
not improbable that affective or aesthetic elements contributed to the
result, which shows as high a figure as 25 seconds for the gray as
against 29 for the white. One subject indeed (IV.) found the gray
restful, and gives accordingly an individual average of 32 for the
gray as against 27 for the white. More than one subject, in fact,
records a slight advantage in favor of the gray. And if we must admit
the possibility of a subjective interest, it seems not unlikely that a
bald blank space, constituting one extreme of the white-black series,
should be poorer in suggestion and perhaps more fatiguing than
intermediate members lying nearer to the general tone of the ordinary
visual field. Probably the true function of the brightness quality in
favoring ideation would be better shown by a comparison of different
grays. The general average shows, it is true, a decided preponderance
in favor of the white, but the individual variations prove it would be
unsafe to conclude directly, without experimental test, from the laws
of perception to the laws of ideation.


_Series No. V._--The fifth series, which was suggested by the second,
presents the problem of the lines in greater simplicity than the
second; and, unlike the earlier series, it shows in all the individual
averages the same sort of preponderance as is shown in the general
average (straight line, 31; broken line, 38). The footings of the
columns, moreover, show an aggregate in favor of the broken line in
the case of every pair of lines that were exposed together. The
results in this case may therefore be regarded as cleaner and more
satisfactory than those reached before, and come nearer, one may say,
to the expression of a general law. The theoretical interpretation,
however, would be in both cases the same.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.]


TABLE V.

1 2 3 4 5 6
L A L A L A L A L A L A
I. 28 26.5 24.5 29.5 25 28 26 28.5 26 29.5 25.5 29.5
II. 35 41.5 42 34.5 31.5 47.5 53 50.5 52 52 48 48
III. 16.5 19.5 24 29 41 29.5 35.5 29 21 40 39 40
IV. 40 41.5 37 45 32.5 45.5 36.5 43.5 33.5 38 36.5 43.5
V. 49 53 45 47 45.5 36.5 32.5 51 37 46 40 51
VI. 18 31.5 16 45 22.5 30.5 25 25 24.5 37 25 22
VII. 43 39.5 52 54.5 52.5 53.5 51 54.5 40.5 55 48 48.5
VIII. 23 23 27 29.5 38 40 34.5 32 23 37 42 38.5
IX. 23 48 48 47.5 35 46.5 48 35 28.5 48 46.5 34.5
X. 18 33 19.5 31.5 20.5 30 22 29.5 16.5 35.5 19.5 33
XI. 22.5 33.5 18 41 26 23 19 35.5 5 38 7 50.5

316 390.5 353 434 370 410.5 383 414 307.5 456 377 439

Averages.
L A
I. 25.83 28.58
II. 43.58 45.66
III. 29.50 31.16
IV. 36.00 42.83
V. 41.50 47.41
VI. 21.83 31.83
VII. 47.83 50.91
VIII. 31.25 33.33
IX. 38.16 43.25
X. 19.33 32.08
XI. 16.25 36.91

31.91 38.54

_L_: Line (straight line). _A_: Angle (broken line).

General average: _L_, 31.91 sec.; _A_, 38.54 sec.


TABLE VI.

1 2 3 4 5 6
P M P M P M P M P M P M
I. 22 32.5 23.5 32 23.5 32 22.5 32.5 23.5 31.5 21 39
II. 24.5 32.5 31.5 49.5 32 39 36 36 33.5 42 28.5 35
III. 8.5 23.5 0 36 0 31.5 11.5 5.5 8.5 14 3.5 8.5
IV. 30 49.5 30.5 42 24 48 27.5 44 28 40.5 43.5 34.5
V. 55.5 55.5 54.5 54.5 46.5 53 34 36 41.5 47 31 35.5
VI. 19.5 22.5 19.5 28 19.5 28.5 26.5 27.5 24.5 29.5 18.5 36
VII. 45 56.5 47.5 55.5 40.5 40 48 54 33.5 50 41 42.5
VIII. 19.5 24 0 40 27.5 20.5 13.5 23 16 25 23 34.5
IX. 28 49.5 26.5 48.5 27.5 45 18 45 21.5 48.5 42.5 44.5
X. 8 43.5 22 29 8.5 43.5 9.5 42.5 16 35 12.5 40.5
XI. 5.5 42.5 7.5 35.5 16.5 35.5 7.5 41 10 41.5 8 32.5

24.18 39.27 23.91 40.95 24.18 37.86 23.14 35.18 23.32 36.77 24.82 34.82

Indiv. Aver.
P M
I. 22.666 33.250
II. 31.000 39.000
III. 5.333 19.833
IV. 30.583 43.083
V. 43.833 46.916
VI. 21.333 28.666
VII. 42.583 49.750
VIII. 16.583 27.833
IX. 27.333 46.833
X. 12.750 39.000
XI. 9.166 38.083

23.92 37.48

_P_: Plain. _M_: Marked.

General average: Plain, 23.92 sec.; Marked, 37.48 sec.


Series No. VI._--Both the figures in each pair of this series were of
the same material (granite-gray cardboard) and of the same area and
outline, but the content of one of the two was varied with dark lines
for the most part concentric with the periphery.

The advantage on the side of the figures with a varied content is
marked, the general averages showing a greater difference than is
shown in any of the tables so far considered. And the advantage
appears on the same side both in the individual averages and in the
averages for the different pairs as shown at the foot of the columns.
There can be little doubt, accordingly, that we have here the
expression of a general law.

For the meaning of this law we may consult the notes of the subjects:
'The plain figure became a mere amorphous mass;' 'the inner lines
reinforce the shape, for while previously the number of points in this
star has increased (in ideation), here the number is fixed, and fixed
correctly;' 'my attention traversed the lines of the content, and
seemed to be held by them;' 'the variety of the marked objects was
felt as more interesting;' 'the attention was more active when
considering the marked figures, passing from point to point of the
figure;' 'the surface of the plain figure was attended to as a whole
or mass, without conscious activity;' 'in the plain figure I thought
of the gray, in the marked figure I thought of the lines;' 'part of
the plain figure tended to have lines.'

The part played by the motor elements previously referred to in
sustaining attention and prolonging (internal) sensation is here
unmistakable. We have further evidence, too, of the value of the line
in defining and strengthening the mental attitude. In a mass of
homogeneous elements such as is presented by a uniform gray surface,
the attention is equally engaged by all and definitely held by none.
Monotony therefore means dullness. And the inhibition of incompatible
attitudes being as weak and uncertain as the attitudes actually but
loosely assumed, the latter are readily displaced, and the sensation
to which they correspond as readily disappears. Hence the greater
interest excited by the lined figures. The lines give definiteness and
direction to the attention, and as definitely inhibit incompatible
attitudes. And the shutting out of the latter by the spontaneous
activity of the mind means that it is absorbed or interested in its
present occupation.


TABLE VII.

1 2 3 4 5 6
5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10
I. 29.5 23 24.5 21.5 27 18.5 28 26 27 20 25 29.5
II. 25.5 21 32.5 42.5 19.5 33 27 33.5 26 32 20 28.5
III. 4.5 18.5 12.5 5.5 0 3.5 7.5 11 10.5 18.5 0 7
IV. 33 31.5 28 32 42 44 25 45 38.5 43 41 36.5
V. 35 40.5 35 52.5 28 49.5 43 31 42.5 29 47.5 50.5
VI. 10.5 34.5 10.5 34.5 23 15 26 26.5 22 27 19.5 34.5
VII. 27 42 28.5 19 31.5 49 39 45.5 28.5 50.5 49.5 51.5
VIII. 13.5 21.5 19 15 21.5 18 23 22.5 19.5 18 24.5 21.5
IX. 33 43.5 36 37.5 35 40 26 45 31.5 44 21.5 43.5
X. 20.5 23 22.5 23 23 23.5 22 27.5 21.5 29 21 34.5
XI. 13.5 29 32 16.5 9.5 36.5 40.5 8.5 39.5 8.5 17.5 30.5

22.32 31.50 25.55 27.23 23.64 30.05 27.91 29.27 27.91 29.05 26.09 33.45

7 8 9 10 11 12
5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10
I. 22.5 29 27.5 25.5 26 22 22.5 27.5 25.5 25 22 28
II. 29 37.5 32.5 28 34 32 26 23 30.5 28 25.5 23
III. 20.5 8.5 12 16.5 21 9 32 3 21.5 15 8 22
IV. 31 26 39.5 41.5 37 29.5 28.5 37 36.5 30.5 33 31.5
V. 38 34 39 46.5 54 40 32.5 46 43.5 46 36.5 50.5
VI. 30 17 13 25 34.5 26.5 20.5 27 27 35 27.5 33
VII. 55.5 50 42.5 28 50.5 15.5 49 17.5 43.5 29.5 44 26.5
VIII. 16.5 21.5 18 17 17.5 21.5 21 22.5 21.5 23.5 23 27.5
IX. 41 46 45.5 43.5 46.5 33 39 37.5 32 35 33.5 40
X. 24.5 28.5 26.5 24 28.5 25.5 25.5 25 22 30 24 23.5
XI. 19.5 26.5 14 30 42.5 2.5 21.5 30 22.5 33 25.5 24

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