Various - Harvard Psychological Studies, Volume 1

V >> Various >> Harvard Psychological Studies, Volume 1

Pages:
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 49 | 50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55

29.82 29.50 28.18 29.59 35.64 23.36 28.91 26.91 29.64 30.05 27.50 29.96

Indiv. Aver.
5 10
I. 25.58 24.62
II. 27.33 30.16
III. 12.50 11.50
IV. 34.41 35.66
V. 39.54 43.00
VI. 22.00 27.95
VII. 40.75 35.37
VIII. 19.87 20.83
IX. 35.04 40.70
X. 23.45 26.41
XI. 24.83 22.95

27.75 29.15

5: refers to object exposed 5 seconds.
10: refers to object exposed 10 seconds.

General average: (5), 27.75 sec.; (10), 29.15 sec.

_Series No. VII._--The object of this series was to determine the
effect in ideation of exposing for unequal lengths of time the two
objects compared. The figures compared were of the same area and
outline, and were distinguished only by their color, one being red and
the other green. These colors were employed, after a preliminary test,
as showing, on the whole, to nearly equal advantage in the individual
choice of colors. The shorter exposure was five seconds and the longer
exposure ten seconds. The color that was to be seen the longer time
was exposed first alone; after five seconds the other was exposed; and
then both were seen for five seconds together, so that neither might
have the advantage of the more recent impression. The two colors were
regularly alternated, and in one half of the series the longer
exposure was to the right, in the other half to the left. The extra
five seconds were thus in each case at the beginning of the
experiment.

The general averages show only a slight advantage in favor of the
color which was exposed the longer time, namely, 29.15 seconds, as
against 27.75 seconds. It is not easy to believe that the advantage of
sole occupancy of the visual field for five seconds, without any
offsetting disadvantage in the next five seconds, should have so
slight an effect on the course of ideation. And it is not improbable
that there was an offsetting disadvantage. In the presence of color
the subject can scarcely remain in the attitude of quiet curiosity
which it is easy to maintain in the observation of colorless objects.
A positive interest is excited. And the appearance of a new color in
the field when there is another color there already seems to be
capable of exciting, by a sort of successive contrast different from
that ordinarily described, an interest which is the stronger from the
fact that the subject has already been interested in a different
color. That is to say, the transition from color to color (only red
and green were employed) seems to be more impressive than the
transition from black to color. And, under the conditions of the
experiment, the advantage of this more impressive transition lay
always with the color which was exposed the shorter time.

Judging from the introspective notes, the outline seems to suffer, in
competition with a colored content, some loss of power to carry the
attention and maintain its place in the ideation. "The colors tend to
diffuse themselves, ignoring the boundary," says one. "The images fade
from the periphery toward the center," says another. On the other
hand, one of the subjects finds that when both images are present the
color tends to fade out. This may perhaps be explained by the remark
of another subject to the effect that there is an alternate shifting
of the attention when both images are present. An attitude of
continued and definite change, we may suppose, is one in which the
color interest must yield to the interest in boundaries and definite
spatial relations.

Other interesting facts come out in the notes. One subject finds the
ideated plane farther away than the objective plane; another conceives
the two as coinciding. The movement of the eyes is by this time
distinctly perceived by the subject. The reports run as follows:
'Eye-movements seem to follow the changes in ideation;' 'I find my
eyes already directed, when an image is ideated, to the corresponding
side, and am sometimes conscious of the movement, but the movement is
not intended or willed;' 'in ideating any particular color I find my
attention almost always directed to the side on which the
corresponding object was seen.' This last observation seems to be true
for the experience of every subject, and, generally speaking, the
images occupy the same relative positions as the objects: the image of
the right object is seen to the right, that of the left object to the
left, and the space between the two remains tolerably constant,
especially for the full-faced figures.

This fact suggested a means of eliminating the disturbing influence of
color, and its contrasts and surprises, by the substitution of gray
figures identical in form and size and distinguished only by their
spatial position. The result appears in the table which follows
(VIII.).

_Series No. VIII._--The object of this experiment was the same as that
of No. VII. Granite-gray figures, however, were substituted, for the
reasons already assigned, in place of the red and green figures. And
here the effect of additional time in the exposure is distinctly
marked, the general averages showing 32.12 seconds for the image of
the object which was exposed 10 seconds, as against 25.42 seconds for
the other.

TABLE VIII.

1 2 3 4 5 Indiv. Aver.
5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10
I. 26.5 27 24.5 30.5 26.5 28 27.5 27.5 26.5 29 26.3 28.4
II. 32.5 38.5 27 36 29 28 17 14.5 37.5 27 28.6 28.8
III. 4.5 13.5 11 1.5 10 11 7.5 14.5 12.5 8.5 9.1 9.8
IV. 23.5 40.5 27.5 34 35.5 38 35 28 17 39 27.7 35.9
V. 41 46 50 51.5 43 42.5 46 35.5 31.5 44 42.3 43.9
VI. 7.5 27 18 25 21.5 25.5 7 44.5 33.5 19 17.5 28.2
VIII. 24.5 27 34.5 32 36.5 36 34.5 38.5 28 28.5 31.6 32.4
IX. 17 46 25.5 47.5 44 47 40.5 47.5 48 48 35.0 47.2
X. 20 29 21 26.5 25.5 24.5 27.5 22 19.5 23.5 22.7 25.1
XI. 11 41.5 9.5 50 5.5 43.5 15.5 40.5 25.5 32 13.4 41.5
20.80 33.60 24.85 33.45 27.70 32.40 25.80 31.30 27.95 29.85 25.42 32.12

VII.--Absent.

5: refers to object exposed 5 seconds.
10: refers to object exposed 10 seconds.

General average: (5), 25.42 sec.; (10), 32.12 sec.

The interpretation of this difference may be made in accordance with
the principles already laid down. The ideated and actual movements
which favor the recurrence and persistence of an idea are, on grounds
generally recognized in psychology, much more likely to occur and
repeat themselves when the corresponding movements, or the same
movements in completer form, have frequently been repeated in
observation of the corresponding object.

TABLE IX.

1 2 3 4 5 Indiv. Aver.
1st 2d 1st 2d 1st 2d 1st 2d 1st 2d 1st 2d
I. 22.5 32.5 27 28 26.5 28 26.5 27.5 26 29 25.7 29.0
II. 4.5 43 9 29 3.5 38 0 43 17 44.5 6.8 39.5
III. 0 22 0 20.5 9.5 16.5 0 23.5 3.5 9.5 2.6 18.4
IV. 0 31 1 35.5 4.5 39 16.5 32.5 16 20.5 7.6 31.7
V. 24 52.5 41.5 40 12 53.5 22 55 22 50.5 24.3 50.3
VII. 1.5 52 0 48 0 54.5 0 50.5 0 46.5 0.3 50.3
VIII. 12 26 10 27.5 11.5 23.5 13.5 28.5 15.5 20 12.5 25.1
IX. 24 43.5 20 42 25 42.5 20.5 44.5 28 42.5 23.5 43.0
X. 9 45.5 19.5 30 11 33 12 38 14.5 30 13.2 35.3
XI. 12.5 35 23.5 29.5 1 49 2 44 10.5 52 9.9 41.9
11.00 38.30 15.15 33.00 10.45 37.75 11.30 38.70 15.30 34.50 12.64 36.45

VI.--Absent.

From this point on the place of Miss H. (IV.) is taken by Mr.
R. The members in each pair of objects in this group were not
exposed simultaneously.

1st: refers to object first exposed.
2d: refers to object last exposed.

General average: 1st, 12.64 sec.: 2d, 36.45 sec.

What is here called ideated movement--by which is understood the idea
of a change in spatial relations which accompanies a shifting of the
attention or a change in the mental attitude, as distinguished from
the sense of movements actually executed--was recognized as such by
one of the subjects, who says: "When the two objects are before me I
am conscious of what seem to be images of movement, or ideated
movements, not actual movements." The same subject also finds the
image of the object which had the longer exposure not only more vivid
in the quality of the content, but more distinct in outline.

_Series No. IX._--In this experiment the objects, which were of
granite-gray cardboard, were exactly alike, but were exposed at
different times and places. After the first had been exposed five
seconds alone, it was covered by means of a sliding screen, and the
second was then exposed for the same length of time, the interval
between the two exposures being also five seconds. Two observations
were made with each pair, the first exposure being in one case to the
left and in the other case to the right. The object here was, of
course, to determine what, if any, advantage the more recent of the
two locally different impressions would have in the course of
ideation. The table shows that the image of the object last seen had
so far the advantage in the ideational rivalry that it remained in
consciousness, on the average, almost three times as long as the
other, the average being, for the first, 12.64 seconds; for the
second, 36.45 seconds. And both the individual averages and the
averages for the several pairs show, without exception, the same
general tendency.

The notes show, further, that the image of the figure first seen was
not only less persistent but relatively less vivid than the other,
though the latter was not invariably the case. One subject had 'an
impression that the images were farther apart' than in the series
where the exposure of the two objects was simultaneous, though the
distance between the objects was in all cases the same, the time
difference being, apparently, translated into spatial terms and added
to the spatial difference. The sort of antagonism which temporal
distinctions tend, under certain conditions, to set up between ideas
is illustrated by the remark of another subject, who reports that 'the
attention was fairly dragged by the respective images.' And the fact
of such antagonism, or incompatibility, is confirmed by the extremely
low figure which represents the average time when both images were
reported present at the same time. The two images, separated by
processes which the time interval implies, seem to be more entirely
incompatible and mutually inhibitory than the images of objects
simultaneously perceived. For not only does the advantage of a few
seconds give the fresher image a considerable preponderance in its
claim on the attention, but even the earlier image, after it has once
caught the attention, usually succeeds in shutting out the other from
a simultaneous view.

TABLE X.

1 2 3 4 5 Indiv. Aver.
V H V H V H V H V H V H
I. 27.5 27 26.5 28 30.5 24.5 27.5 28.5 26 25 27.60 26.60
II. 45 43.5 37 40 35.5 28.5 19 15.5 30.5 30.5 33.40 31.60
III. 19 21 0 10.5 19.5 19 9 15 4.5 16 10.40 16.30
IV. 47.5 39 36 22.5 44.5 41.5 47.5 46 37 36 42.50 37.00
V. 56.5 46.5 42.5 42.5 48 45.5 48.5 48.5 53 52 49.70 47.00
VI. 31.5 28.5 30.5 30.5 22 34.5 34.5 28.5 25 26.5 28.70 29.70
VII. 55 55 55 45.5 38 20 55.5 53.5 56 56 51.90 45.80
VIII. 39.5 47 23.5 23.5 19 18.5 26.5 26.5 26 20.5 26.90 27.20
IX. 26.5 46 38 42.5 41 44 40.5 46.5 35.5 39 36.30 43.60
X. 24.5 25 26 25 25.5 23 23.5 28.5 32.5 20.5 26.40 24.40
XI. 52 52 56.5 54.5 48 49.5 45 47.5 51.5 47.5 50.60 50.20

38.60 39.14 33.77 33.09 33.77 31.68 34.27 34.95 34.31 33.60 34.94 34.49

_V_: Vertical. _H_: Horizontal.

General average: Vertical, 34.94 sec.; Horizontal, 34.49 sec.

_Series No. X._--The objects used in this experiment were straight
lines, two strips of granite-gray cardboard, each ten centimeters long
and half a centimeter wide, the one being vertical and the other
horizontal. These were pasted on black cards and exposed in alternate
positions, each appearing once to the right and once to the left. The
figures in the columns represent in each case the combined result of
two such observations.

The experiments with these lines were continued at intervals through
a number of weeks, each individual average representing the result of
ten observations, or of five pairs of exposures with alternating
objects.

The striking feature in the observations is the uniformity of the
results as they appear in the general averages and in the averages for
each pair as shown at the foot of the columns. There is some variation
in the individual tendencies, as shown by the individual averages. But
the general average for this group of subjects shows a difference of
less than half a second per minute, and that difference is in favor of
the vertical line.

This series will serve a double purpose. It shows, in the first place,
that on the whole the vertical and the horizontal lines have a nearly
equal chance of recurrence in image or idea. It will serve, in the
second place, as a standard of comparison when we come to consider the
effect of variations in the position and direction of lines.

TABLE XI.

1 2 3 4 5 Indiv. Av.
F O F O F O F O F O F O
I. 24 31 26.5 28.5 27 29 22 33.5 27.5 28 25.4 30.0
II. 53.5 50 52.5 52.5 56.5 55.5 43.5 43.5 56 51.5 52.4 50.6
III. 3 21.5 4 20 11 17 3.5 27 0 20.5 4.3 21.2
IV. 26.5 30 11 48.5 12.5 53 12 51 23 51 17.0 46.7
V. 40.5 56.5 48 56 55.5 55.5 53 55.5 53.5 55.5 50.1 55.58
VI. 27.5 40.5 23 31.5 24.5 32.5 31 29 27 33.5 26.6 33.4
VII. 50.5 54 53.5 56.5 53.5 53.5 40.5 52 55 55 50.6 54.2
VIII. 1 33.5 11 27 5 32 7.5 39 4.5 36.5 5.8 33.6
IX. 35.5 41.5 45.5 47 41.5 41.5 39 44.5 41 41.5 40.5 43.2
X. 19 30.5 21.5 30.5 21 29.5 16 37.5 22.5 30.5 20.0 31.7
XI. 11.5 52.5 18 51.5 14.5 50.5 23 50.5 15 52.5 16.4 51.5
26.59 40.14 28.59 40.86 29.32 40.86 26.45 42.09 29.55 41.45 28.10 41.08

_F_: Full-faced. _O_: Outlined.

General average: full-faced, 28.10 sec.; outlined, 41.08 sec.

_Series No. XI._--In this series full-faced figures were compared with
outline figures of the same dimensions and form. Material,
granite-gray cardboard. The area of the full-faced figures was the
same as that of the figures of similar character employed in the
various series, approximately 42 sq. cm.; the breadth of the lines in
the outline figures was half a centimeter. The objects in each pair
were exposed simultaneously, with the usual instructions to the
subject, namely, to regard each object directly, and to give to each
the same share of attention as to the other.

The form of the experiment was suggested by the results of earlier
experiments with lines. It will be remembered that the express
testimony of the subjects, confirmed by fair inference from the
tabulated record, was to the effect that lines show, in ideation as in
perception, both greater energy and clearer definition than surfaces.
By lines are meant, of course, not mathematical lines, but narrow
surfaces whose longer boundaries are closely parallel. To bring the
superior suggestiveness of the line to a direct test was the object of
this series. And the table fully substantiates the former conclusion.
For the outline figure we have a general average of 41.08 seconds per
minute, as against 28.10 seconds for the full-faced figure.

The notes here may be quoted as corroborative of previous statements.
"I notice," says one, "a tendency of the color in the full-faced
figure to spread over the background"--a remark which bears out what
has been said of the relative vagueness of the subjective processes
excited by a broad homogeneous surface. To this may be added: "The
full-faced figures became finally less distinct than the linear, and
faded from the outside in;" "the areal (full-faced) figure gradually
faded away, while the linear remained." Another comment runs: "I feel
the left (full-faced) striving to come into consciousness, but failing
to arrive. Don't see it; feel it; and yet the feeling is connected
with the eyes." This comment, made, of course, after the close of an
observation, may serve as evidence of processes subsidiary to
ideation, and may be compared, in respect of the motor factors which
the 'striving' implies, with the preparatory stage which Binet found
to be an inseparable and essential part of any given (vocal) motor
reaction.[8]

[8] Binet, A. et Henri, V.: _op. citat._

_Series No. XII._--Both the figures of each pair in this series were
linear, and presented the same extent of surface (granite-gray) with
the same length of line. In other words, both figures were constituted
of the same elements, and in both the corresponding lines ran in the
same direction; but the lines in the one were connected so as to form
a figure with a continuous boundary, while the lines of the other were
disconnected, _i.e._, did not inclose a space. The total length of
line in each object was twenty centimeters, the breadth of the lines
five millimeters. Both figures were arranged symmetrically with
respect to a perpendicular axis.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.]

TABLE XII.

1 2 3 4 5 Indiv. Av.
L F L F L F L F L F L F
I. 31.5 24 30 24.5 23.5 32 25.5 30.5 27 29.5 27.5 28.1
II. 55 55 56 56 56 56 56.5 56.5 54 54 55.5 55.5
III. 22 6 26.5 9.5 31.5 1.5 23 5.5 28.5 0 26.3 4.5
IV. 31 15 46.5 20.5 52 9.5 49 6 55 18 46.7 13.8
V. 56 54 56 56 56 56 56.5 56.5 55.5 55.5 56.0 55.6
VI. 33 30 34 39.5 31.5 29.5 26.5 32 26 31.5 30.2 32.5
VII. 55.5 49.5 56.5 38 54.5 35 57.5 32.5 38 27 52.4 36.4
VIII. 26.5 15.5 21.5 13.5 25 17 25.5 21 15 13.5 22.7 16.1
IX. 45.5 32.5 44.5 39 42.5 35.5 41.5 37.5 43 40.5 43.4 37.0
X. 29.5 23 36.5 16 23 28.5 35.5 16.5 29 23 30.7 21.4
XI. 52 8 49.5 19 45.5 25 43.5 21.5 15 31.5 41.1 21.0
39.77 28.41 41.77 30.18 40.10 29.60 40.05 28.73 35.10 29.50 39.32 29.26

L: Interrupted lines.
F: Figure with continuous boundary. (Figure in outline.)

General average: Lines, 39.32 sec.; figure, 29.26 sec.

The experiment was devised in further exploration of the effect of the
line in ideation. The result fully bears out, when read in the light
of the introspective notes, what has been said of the importance of
the motor element in ideation. It might have been supposed, in view of
the importance usually attached to unity or wholeness of impression in
arresting and holding the attention in external perception, that the
completed figure would have the more persistent image. The general
averages, however, stand as follows: Interrupted lines, 39.32 seconds
per minute; completed figure, 29.26 seconds per minute. The individual
averages show slight variations from the tendency expressed in these
figures, but the averages for the several pairs are all in harmony
with the general averages.

The notes furnish the key to the situation: "I felt that I was doing
more, and had more to do, when thinking of the broken lines." "The
broken figure seemed more difficult to get, but to attract attention;
continuous figure easy to grasp." "Felt more active when
contemplating the image of the broken figure." "In the broken figure I
had a feeling of jumping from line to line, and each line seemed to be
a separate figure; eye-movement very perceptible." The dominance of
the interrupted lines in ideation is evidently connected with the more
varied and energetic activity which they excited in the contemplating
mind. Apparently the attention cannot be held unless (paradoxical as
it may sound) it is kept moving about its object. Hence, a certain
degree of complexity in an object is necessary to sustain our interest
in it, if we exclude, as we must of course in these experiments,
extraneous grounds of interest. Doubtless there are limits to the
degree of complexity which we find interesting and which compels
attention. A mere confused or disorderly complex, wanting altogether
in unity, could hardly be expected to secure attention, if there is
any truth in the principle, already recognized, that the definite has
in ideation a distinct advantage over the vague. Here again the notes
suggest the method of interpretation. "The broken lines," says one,
"tended to come together, and to take the form of the continuous
figure." Another remarks: "The broken figure suggests a whole
connected figure; the continuous is complete, the broken wants to be."
In virtue of their power to excite and direct the activity of the
attention the interrupted lines seem to have been able to suggest the
unity which is wanting in them as they stand. "The broken lines," says
another, "seemed to run out and unite, and then to separate again"--a
remark which shows a state of brisk and highly suggestive activity in
the processes implied in attention to these lines. And a glance at the
diagram will show how readily the union of the broken lines may be
made. These were arranged symmetrically because the lines of the
completed figures were so arranged, in order to equalize as far as
possible whatever aesthetic advantage a symmetrical arrangement might
be supposed to secure.

It thus appears that, whatever the effect in ideation of unity in the
impression, the effect is much greater when we have complexity in
unity. The advantage of unity is undoubtedly the advantage which goes
with definiteness of impression, which implies definite excitations
and inhibitions, and that concentration of energy and intensity of
effect in which undirected activity is wanting. But a bare unity, it
appears, is less effective than a diversified unity. To what extent
this diversity may be carried we make no attempt to determine; but,
within the limits of our experiment, its value in the ideational
rivalry seems to be indisputable. And the results of the experiment
afford fresh proof of the importance of the motor element in internal
perception.

TABLE XIII.

1 2 3 4 5 Indiv. Av.
F V F V F V F V F V F V
I. 25 29 26 29 29.5 26.5 25.5 30 24.5 31 26.1 29.1
II. 56 56 55 55 54 54.5 47.5 47.5 45 50 51.5 52.6
III. 2.5 5.5 2.5 8.5 6.5 5 16.5 9.5 17 15 9.0 8.7
IV. 48 48 31.5 31.5 31 46 51.5 51.5 35 52 39.4 45.8
V. 54 54 56.5 52 56 56 56 56 54 56 55.3 54.8
VI. 39 29 30 33.5 35.5 22.5 32.5 34 33.5 24.5 34.1 28.7
VII. 46 55 54.5 46.5 46.5 50 49.5 54 47 46 48.7 50.3
VIII. 9 14.5 23 20.5 23.5 22 18 14.5 16 17 17.9 17.7
IX. 43 43 46.5 46.5 45.5 45.5 43.5 43.5 46 47.5 44.9 45.2
X. 28 26.5 21 29.5 26.5 26.5 21.5 31.5 25 29 24.4 28.6
XI. 23.5 46 19.5 35.5 20 46 24 47.5 28.5 19.5 23.1 38.9
34.00 36.95 33.27 35.27 34.05 36.41 35.09 38.14 33.77 35.23 34.03 36.40

F: Figure (in outline). V: Vertical lines.

General average: Figure, 34.03 sec.; vertical lines, 36.40 sec.

_Series No. XIII._--In this series, also, both the figures of each
pair were constituted of the same elements; that is to say, both were
linear, and presented the same extent of surface (granite-gray), with
the same length of line, the total length of the lines in each figure
being twenty centimeters and the breadth of the lines being three
millimeters. But while the lines of one figure were connected so as to
form a continuous boundary, the lines of the other figure were all
vertical, with equal interspaces. And, as in the last preceding
series, the two figures were formed by a different but symmetrical
arrangement of the same lines.