Various - Harvard Psychological Studies, Volume 1

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Every record was repeated at least twice, and both records were
measured. In many of the experiments the intensities were fixed by the
conditions of the experiment. There was always the corroborative
testimony of the phonograph diaphragm; for the two were not apt to err
together. It was easy to determine if the actual intensity relations
were preserved in the phonograph (but it could not be taken for
granted). Each record was reproduced on the phonograph immediately
after it had been taken, and both subject and operator listened for
anomalies. In practice it was not hard to get records of the single
vowel used (at a small range of pitch which was never more than a
third or fourth and was nearly always much less) which represented
fairly well the relative intensities. Beside the checks spoken of
above, every record was repeated by a number of subjects, and the
comparison of the results of different voices shows uniformity.

The recording of spoken verse is another matter. It is not difficult
to test a diaphragm carefully through a small range, but to be certain
of its action at all the pitches and qualities of the speaking voice
is impossible. A stable diaphragm, glass or mica, would have to be
used, and careful corrections made for the different vowels.

At best, when the records are satisfactory, nothing can be said for
the measurements of intensity but that they represent relations of
more or less; the diaphragm has a minimum intensity, below which it
does not vibrate, and a maximum intensity, above which the amplitude
of its vibrations does not materially increase without breaking into
partials and 'blasting.'

The disc recorder, which had for a mount a modified microscope stand,
was placed on the shoe of the disc stand and clamped. The wax and disc
records were adjusted at known starting-points and the stylus
carefully lowered, by the rack and pinion adjustment, to the surface
of the disc. After a preliminary trial of the diaphragm the apparatus
was started, and when at full speed at least two satisfactory records
of the material were taken. When the disc had made a single
revolution--a record of some ten or fifteen stanzas--the recorder was
fed inward to a new circle on the disc. After the records were taken,
a microscope with either 2 or 4 Leitz objective and a micrometer
ocular was substituted for the recorder. The phonograph recorder was
raised and drawn back to its starting point, and the disc came back to
its original position. The microscope was focussed, and adjusted by
the screw of the shoe until it had the record line in its field; the
micrometer furnished an object of reference in the field. The
phonograph, now carrying the reproducer--if possible without a horn,
as the tones are truer--was started. At the first syllable of the
record the apparatus was stopped by the device furnished on the
'Commercial' phonograph, and the plate was turned by adjusting the
screw at the phonograph carriage, which changed the length of the
chain connecting the two records, until the record of the first
syllable was at some chosen point in the field. In cases of records
of poetry it was found better to have a set of syllables, say 'one,
two, three' prefixed to the record, for this adjustment. The
phonograph was again started, and the curve-forms representing the
spoken syllables filed past the point as the phonograph repeated each
syllable. The rate was slow enough, with the objective 2, so that
there was no difficulty in observing the passing syllables. After the
conformity of the phonograph record had been noted by the operator,
and the subject had passed judgment on the phonograph as saying
satisfactorily what he had said, the curve-forms were measured with
the micrometer. The record was fed slowly through the field by means
of the chain screw on the phonograph carriage; and measurements of the
lengths of syllables gave their time values. The micrometer was passed
back and forth across the form by the shoe screw, for the measurements
of amplitude (intensity). The micrometer measurements in this case
could be made at least as rapidly as measurements of kymograph curves.
The measurements, with the powers used, are accurate to.01 sec.

The smoked disc records are to be preferred to those scratched with a
diamond, because of the superior legibility of the line, an important
item if thousands of measurements are to be made. The records are
fixed with shellac and preserved, or they may be printed out by a
photographic process and the prints preserved. The parallel set of wax
records is preserved with them. There are several ways in which the
wax records lend themselves to the study of rhythmic questions. It is
easy to change the rate, and thereby get new material for judgment, in
a puzzling case. Consonant qualities are never strong, and it is easy
so to damp the reproducer that only the vowel intensities are heard.
The application in the study of rhyme is obvious.

All the series consisted of regular nonsense syllables. The accented
and unaccented elements were represented by the single syllable 'ta'
('a' as in father). Rhymes were of the form 'da,' 'na,' 'ga' and 'ka.'
In other parts of the work (cf. Table IV.) the vowel o had been used
in rhymes for contrast; but the same vowel, a, was used in these
records, to make the intensity measurements comparable.

The records of the measurements were as complete as possible. The
sonant and the interval of each element were measured, and all the
pauses except the stanza pause were recorded. The intensity of each
syllable was recorded beneath the length of the syllable, and notes
were made both from the appearance of the curve and from the
phonograph record.

_2. The Normal Form of Unrhymed Verse._

To determine the influence of a subordinate factor in rhythm such as
rhyme, it is necessary to know the normal form of verse without this
factor. It is natural to assume that the simplest possible form of
material would be individual feet recorded seriatim. But on trial,
such material turned out to be very complex; the forms changed
gradually, iambs becoming trochees and trochees changing into
spondees. It is very probable that the normal foot occurs only in a
larger whole, the verse.

To corroborate the conclusions from perceived rhythms as to the
existence of variations in earlier and later parts of the verse, a
table of mean variations was prepared from the material recorded and
measured for other purposes.

TABLE VI.

MEAN VARIATIONS.

Iambic tetrameters; variations of each element from the average foot
of the entire stanza.

[Label 1: Unaccented Element of Foot.]
[Label 2: Accented Element of Foot.]
[Label 3: Percentage M.V. of Unac. El.]
[Label 4: Percentage M.V. of Ac. El.]

Hu. 8 stanzas [1] [2] [3] [4]
M.V. 1st foot 0.9688 1.3125 11.1 7.8
2d " 0.8125 0.6563 9.3 3.9
3d " 0.8438 1.1875 9.7 7.1
4th " 0.9688 11.
Av. foot of all stanzas 8.69 16.88

Geo. 10 stanzas, no accents or rhymes within the verse:
M.V. 1st foot 2.725 2.775 24.6 13.3
2d " 1.300 1.325 11.8 6.4
3d " 1.400 2.050 12.7 9.8
4th " 2.750 24.9
Av. foot of all stanzas 11.05 20.85

Geo. 8 stanzas, accents and rhymes within the verse:
M.V. 1st foot 1.4843 2.4687 13.1 11.5
2d " 1.4219 2.6875 12.6 12.6
3d " 1.7031 2.5312 15.1 11.8
4th " 1.8594 16.4
Av. foot of all stanzas 11.31 21.38

The last element has the 'finality-form' and is not comparable to the
other accented elements and therefore is not given.

Dactylic tetrameters (catalectic); variations of each element from the
average foot of the entire stanza:

[Label 1: Accented elements of Foot]
[Label 2: 1st Unaccented element of Foot]
[Label 3: 2d Unaccented element of Foot]
[Label 4: Percentage M.V. of Ac. El.]
[Label 5: Percentage M.V. of 1st Unac. El.]
[Label 6: Percentage M.V. of 2d Unac. El.]

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]
Me., Ha., 8 stanzas, normal:
M.V. 1st foot 1.6875 1.2813 1.8125 9.70 9.76 10.5
" 2d " 1.0613 1.0613 1.4061 6.1 8.0 8.1
" 3d " 1.6875 1.3125 1.3750 9.7 9.9 7.9
Av. foot 17.38 13.18 17.31

Geo. 4, stanzas, abnormal type of dactylic foot:
M.V. 1st foot 1.5000 1.1250 1.2813 11.5 11.0 8.7
" 2d " 1.5625 1.1250 1.1250 12.0 11.0 7.6
" 3d " 1.3437 1.1873 0.8737 10.3 11.5 5.9
Av. foot 13.00 10.25 14.75

Me., Ha., G., Hu., Am., accent on 2d foot, 8 stanzas:
M.V. 1st foot 2.4688 1.3125 2.2813 12.7 12.7 11.5
" 2d " 2.3750 1.1250 3.8438 12.2 8.7 19.3
" 3d " 2.9688 1.3750 2.2500 15.5 10.7 11.3
Av. foot 19.44 12.88 19.88

Me., Ha., G., Hu., 19 stanzas, normal:
M.V. 1st foot 1.9474 1.2500 2.2763 10.8 8.6 11.4
" 2d " 1.3816 1.2369 1.7766 7.7 8.5 9.3
" 3d " 1.3158 1.2105 1.6382 7.3 8.4 8.6
Av. foot 18.00 14.24 19.05

Me., Ha., G., 6 stanzas, normal:
M.V. 1st foot 2.0000 1.2083 1.8750 10.5 10.4 10.7
" 2d " 2.6250 1.0416 2.1666 13.8 9.1 12.3
" 3d " 2.1250 1.3333 1.3333 11.3 11.4 7.6
Av. foot 18.92 11.58 17.50
The last foot (catalectic) is not comparable in these dactylic stanzas.

The mean variations of the table (Table VI.) were calculated as
follows: The average for all the elements of the stanza was obtained
and an average foot constructed (excluding the last sonant and the
pause of the verse). From this average foot the variations of all the
first feet were computed, then the variations of all the second feet,
etc. Then the variations of the first feet of the stanza were averaged
and percentages taken, etc.; it is this last value which goes to the
making up of the tables. In inspecting the averages the corresponding
elements of the feet should be compared. Any increased length due to a
prescribed accent within the verse, etc., appears in the averages as a
corresponding increase in the mean variation at that point, and only
the first and last feet can be compared as to the variations in the
verse as a whole. In making up the tables the material was grouped,
not by combining the records of each subject, but by combining all the
stanzas of a single type, in order to eliminate individual
peculiarities.

TABLE VII.

Verse pauses in unrhymed stanzas, together with the foot pause
within the verse. Length of last foot, together with the
average foot within the verse:

Average first Last foot Average of first Verse Pause.
3 feet of verse. of verse. 3 foot pauses
of verse.
Iambs:
36 56.5 24 45.5
57 122 35 100
68.5 125 45 102
63.5 111.5 42 93
63.5 117.5 39 93.5
66 135 42 110
53.5 59 40 45
60 76 45 61
56.5 68 41 54
55.5 56 39 41
53 53.5 37 41.5
56 73 34 45
85 98 56 54
39 50 26.5 36
37 43 17 30
42.5 45 28 30
38.5 49 26 36
40 79 26 55
31 72.5 21 55
33 66 23 54
33 76 22 64
Dactyls, catalectic:
56 63 (The pauses cannot be
60 62 compared because of the
55 66 omission of elements in
51.5 76 the final foot.)
37 40
55 58.5
53 59.5
40 73
38 65
37.5 56
37 73

Throughout the series of measurements made the accented element was
nearly always longer, and in no case did the accent fail to increase
the length of the sonant. Ebhardt's suggestion that there are two
significant parts in each foot-element, viz., sonant and pause, does
not seem good. Although the sonant is much longer when accented, the
ratio between the sonant and the following interval is not definite.

An examination of thirty-two stanzas of unrhymed iambic and dactylic
(catalectic) tetrameters (cf. Table VII.) shows that the verse pause
is always at least one fourth larger than the foot pause. In the
unrhymed stanzas the verse pause varies widely, and may be as large as
three times the foot pause. A pause longer than the foot pause is
absolutely essential to the unity of the verse. All sorts of ratios
are presented; evidently the verse pause is not a function of the foot
pause.

The next table (Table VIII.) shows a variety of different dynamic
shadings in the verse. It is noteworthy that in these nonsense verses
the type is uniform throughout the stanza. Representing the
intensities by curves similar to those used by the subjects in
listening to rhythms, we have the forms shown in Fig. 6 (_a_).

The general curve is like that in Fig. 6(_b_).

[Illustration: FIG. 6.]

When a special emphasis is prescribed on some particular accent in the
verse, the type becomes invariable, not only in each stanza, but for
all stanzas of all subjects.

The records show that the accent is produced in a variety of ways.
One, for example, gets the accent by a slight increase in intensity,
but especially by a pause following the sonant.

TABLE VIII.

THE INTENSITY RELATIONS WITHIN THE TOTAL, UNRHYMED VERSE.

UNRHYMED IAMBIC TETRAMETERS.
Average
Intensities. length Length
' ' ' ' of first of last
_ - _ - _ - _ - 3 sonants. sonant.

Ha. 2 5 4 5 2 4 3 6 31 31s
4 4 2 4 2 5 3 7 33 36s
2 5 3 4 1 5 3 9 32 29s
2 4 2 5 2 5 3 7 31 22s
3 5 1 5 3 4 3 5 37 35s
2 5 2 4 2 4 3 6 35 27s
2 4 2 4 2 4 2 6 38 22s
1 4 3 4 1 5 3 6 34 23s
Hu. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 25 33
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 26 32
5 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 19 33
5 5 5 6 8 9 8 9 28 50
9 9 8 9 9 9 9 8 43 51
9 7 8 7 7 8 9 10 48 45s
6 7 7 7 6 7 6 7 43 43s
6 6 5 6 4 7 7 8 36 50
G. 9 14 7 14 4 12 6 10 20 25
7 12 7 14 7 10 6 10 16 26
7 12 6 11 4 12 5 10 17 26
6 13 6 11 1 9 7 12 16 26
10 8 7 30 6 15 7 16 18 25
7 14 8 12 6 15 10 13 15 28
7 16 9 15 4 14 7 12 16 25
7 15 7 13 5 13 6 12 17 25

In verses marked 's' the last sonant is shorter than the average of
the preceding sonants.

UNRHYMED IAMBIC TETRAMETERS: PRESCRIBED ACCENT ON THE THIRD FOOT.

'
\/ -- \/ -- \/ -- \/ --
Mc. Couplets. 4 6 6 7 4 6 4 4
5 8 5 6 2 12 8 5
4 6 5 10 4 11 5 3
4 6 5 10 4 10 4 4
7 11 5 9 9 15 5 5
5 19 20 22 21 24 6 6
12 22 16 22 20 22 8 7
12 22 14 31 10 26 6 7
Ha. Couplets. 4 7 4 8 8 9 5 7
5 7 4 6 6 8 2 7
2 6 2 6 5 6 3 6
2 7 3 6 2 10 3 4
3 7 3 7 4 6 4 6
4 5 3 6 4 7 2 6
5 7 1 6 4 8 2 5
2 7 3 5 3 7 2 6

UNRHYMED IAMBIC TETRAMETERS: PRESCRIBED ACCENT ON THE SECOND FOOT.

'
\/ -- \/ -- \/ -- \/ --
Mc. Couplets. 13 22 22 30 22 18 15 18
11 20 22 26 15 19 15 10
10 25 20 26 20 24 12 23
10 19 17 26 19 11 9 10
12 23 18 26 22 17 10 15
8 23 20 27 16 22 15 16
12 23 26 30 22 21 10 17
14 28 26 34 11 28 11 21

Ha. Couplets. 6 9 4 12 4 5 3
4 5 4 12 1 5 2 5
3 5 3 12 2 5 2 6
1 6 4 15 1 6 2 7
- 15 3 12 - 8 - 5
- 6 4 12 - 7 - 5
- 7 - 7 4 13 - 4
- 6 3 13 - 5 - 4

G. Couplets. 9 19 11 20 4 12 3 10
5 13 6 16 5 10 6 11
8 16 10 18 5 10 6 11
6 12 6 16 6 10 6 10
8 16 13 19 5 13 8 12
9 17 11 19 3 10 6 12
9 16 9 18 6 10 7 9
7 15 7 15 5 10 5 10

Frequently the special accent seems to be made by a contrast between
the accented foot and the feet which follow. In most cases the
influence of the special accent is to be seen, not merely within the
accented foot itself, but both before and after the accented foot.
Often the appearance under the microscope is very striking; the
sonants of the feet, both accented and unaccented, increase to the
special accent and then decrease in a regular crescendo--diminuendo
form. Much of this is not shown by the mere measurements.

[Illustration: FIG. 7]

[Illustration: FIG. 8 Iambic Tetrameter Verse
(with the accent on the second foot)]

In general the special accent may he said to be the climax of the
verse movement. It is the crest of the wave, and, as noted above, the
dynamic shading is not always made by an increase up to the accent,
nor by a stress on a special accent, but by a sharp diminuendo
immediately following the accent. A study of the phonograph record
brings out these forms of shading, especially when the record is
repeated slowly, exaggerating the dynamic variations and giving an
opportunity for more careful observation.

Within the verse the general form of the syllable as it appears in the
mass of closely written vibrations, often varies, but nearly always
shows a square end. Several very common shapes are noticed and appear
in the record as (1) 'truncated cones,' (2) 'boxes,' and (3)
'truncated spindles.' (See Fig. 7.)

With the particular syllable used, 'ta,' the beginning of curve form
was usually square and abrupt (4), and not gradual (5), although a few
of the latter type are found ('spindle').

One syllable form has an especial interest, because of its bearing on
the problem of 'finality' feeling at the close of the verse. At the
close of each verse, whether with or without rhyme, the syllable form
is always a 'cone' (6) (cf. Fig. 8). Of about 600 verses measured not
more than 15 are exceptions to this rule. Of these 15 exceptions 10
are under special conditions and confirm the hypothesis that this form
is related to the finality process. The form very rarely occurs within
the verse, and when it does it is usually before some caesura, or under
unusual conditions.

This 'cone' form of the closing syllable of the verse indicates a
falling of the intensity of the voice. It is often, though not always,
associated with a fall in the pitch, showing relaxation of the vocal
cords. It seems to be an indication of the dying out of the intensity
factor, a sinking of the tension, at the close of the verse. In the
case of unrhymed verses, with long verse pause, the cone is often very
much elongated, and it is quite impossible to say where the sound
ceases.

Special accentuation of the long syllable of the foot increases the
length of the sonant, of the accented element, and of the entire foot.
There is probably a slight increase of the total length of an
accented verse as compared with the similar unaccented, but no
calculations were made to show that point. This is quite in accord
with other results (Meumann, Ebhardt). This special accentuation is
connected with an increased mean variation of the time values, as
noted above. It is in that sense a 'disturbing factor.'

TABLE IX.

VERSE PAUSES (INCLUDING FINAL SONANT) TOGETHER WITH THE AVERAGE OF THE
CORRESPONDING ELEMENT WITHIN THE VERSE.

Average long Verse pause Verse pause Verse pause
element of of 1st verse of 2d verse of 3d verse
first 3 feet. of stanza. of stanza. of stanza.
End Rhymes.
Mc. 26 34 104a 35
45 _45_a 80b 80a
31 33 64a 36
41 52a 51b 75a
Ha. 41 _44_a _44_ 45a
43 47a _43_b 46a
39 _41_a 49b 46a
43 46a _45_b _45_a
36 44 41a 53
35 44a 58a 38b
33 40 73a x30
Hu. 28 x25a 50 28a

Feminine Rhymes.
Hu. 18 21a 37a 19b
19 _20_a 22a 16b
19 _21_a _21_a 16b
Mc. 36 72a 64 51a
36 x32 41a 40
22 _22_a x18 29a
Ha. 27 31a 44b _28_a
36 79 x30 40
30 36 79a _30_b
31 38 50a 36
32 39a 42 40a
Am. 34 70 95a 85
35 73a 94 89a
30 45 47a 86
28 54 53a 70
G. 19 64a 64 79a
19 73a 83b 76a
21 81 67a --
19 61 83a 79

The rhymes are marked 'a' and 'b'; _e.g._, couplets a, a, b, b,
etc. Verse pauses in italics are equal to the foot pause; those
marked 'x' are _less_ than the foot pause.

3. _Modification of the Normal Form of Verse due to Rhyme._

Verse Pause in Rhymed Material.

There are as wide, isolated variations as in the case of unrhymed
material. As compared with unrhymed verse, the pause is in general
decidedly shorter. The verse pauses of the feminine rhymes are
generally much like those of the end rhymed material. But there are
very few cases of the verse pause being as short as the foot
pause--only four cases in sixty (6.6 per cent.). See Table IX.