Various - Harvard Psychological Studies, Volume 1

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This wide variation of the verse pause and its occasional equivalence
to the foot pause in rhymed verses is in accord with the notion that
the rhyme in some way brings the verse to a close by a process more
rapid than that in unrhymed material.

The introduction of rhyme seems to be favorable to the division of a
stanza into two parts by producing an unusually long verse pause after
the second verse. Of 43 unrhymed stanzas there are 19 which show a
decidedly long pause at the close of some one of the verses. But of
these 19 cases, only 8 (18 per cent.) have the break at the close of
the second verse. Of 64 rhymed stanzas, 29 show the division, and of
this 29, 22 (34 per cent.) have the break at the close of the second
verse.

Influence of the Rhymes on Intensities.

The intensities at the close of the verse, without rhyme, may be
slightly greater than within the verse. The dynamic shading of the
verse is elastic, and a variety of forms is possible, a decrescendo at
the close of the verse is not unusual (cf. Table VIII.). But when the
rhyme is introduced the general dynamic form of the verse is fixed,
and in the material measured this is true not only of the verses in a
stanza which contain the rhyme but of other verses in the same stanza.

Of the 32 verses containing rhymes in Table X., but four verses are
exceptions to the rule of an increase of intensity on the rhyme. There
are two cases of double, alternating rhymes where it is doubtful if
the subject actually felt one of the alternating rhymes. This increase
of intensity on the rhyme is not confined to that particular syllable
or foot; often, as indicated by the italics, the influence of the
accent makes itself felt earlier in the verse.

TABLE X.

INTENSITIES OF IAMBIC TETRAMETER WITH END RHYME (SHOWING INCREASED
INTENSITY OF THE RHYMING SYLLABLE). ALSO AVERAGE LENGTH OF THE FIRST
THREE SONANTS, TOGETHER WITH THE LENGTH OF THE LAST SONANT.

Intensities. Average length
of first 3 Length of last
sonants. sonant.
\/ - \/ - \/ - \/ -
Mc. -- 5 -- 5 -- 4 -- 5 19 27
-- 4 -- 4 -- 4 -- _11_a 34
-- 4 -- 4 -- 4 -- 7 21
-- 4 -- 5 -- 3 -- _8_a 23

-- 6 -- 6 -- 5 -- 6 19 22
-- 8 -- 7 -- 6 -- _10_a 34
-- 4 -- 3 -- 4 -- 5 26
-- 3 -- 5 -- 4 -- _5_a 30

2 3 5 4 4 5 6 _7_a 29 34
2 3 3 4 2 4 2 _7_b 48
1 2 3 2 2 2 1 _4_a 35
2 3 3 3 2 3 4 _5_b 20

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- --a 25 40
3 4 4 14 3 4 5 _5_b 39
2 3 1 2 2 3 1 _3_a 25
1 3 2 2 1 3 3 _5_b 43

Ha. 6 15 9 12 3 10 4 16 No increase in length.
3 5 3 7 3 5 5 15a
1 15 1 5 4 6 2 9
4 5 2 5 1 5 2 _14_a

2 6 4 8 1 6 5 _11_a No increase in length.
1 7 5 7 3 6 7 _11_b
2 5 2 6 2 6 4 _12_a
1 5 1 5 2 6 3 _15_b 33 38

4 9 5 9 1 3 6 _9_a 25 33
2 8 5 6 4 5 5 _10_b No increase in length.
2 5 2 5 2 5 5 _11_a
1 5 2 5 5 10 2 _12_b 32 34

The evidence of an increased intensity on the rhyme is not so positive
in the case of rhymes in the third foot. Among the rhymes in the
second foot there is but one exception. The rhymes in the second and
third feet were never given very satisfactorily by several of the
subjects. The rhymes within the verse determine a climax in the foot
in which they occur, and all the verses follow this well-defined type.
It is interesting to note, in studying the phonographic record, that
in verses in which the accentuation of the rhythm is not very
definite, the accentuation is perceived when the record is repeated at
the normal speed. If the record is repeated more slowly, and
especially at such a distance that the rhyming consonants cannot be
distinguished, then the accentuation seems to disappear. It is
probable that after a verse or stanza type has been established the
voice may deviate from the type, and the accentuation will be supplied
by the hearer.

TABLE XI.

INTENSITIES OF IAMBIC TETRAMETERS WITH RHYMES IN THE THIRD FOOT
(SHOWING INCREASE IN INTENSITY OF THE RHYME SYLLABLE).

' ' ' '
\/ -- \/ -- \/ -- \/ --
Ha. 13 18 10 16 _7_ _9_a 6 12
9 10 4 11 7 _14_a 4 7
-- 12 5 10 7 9b 6 9
2 12 5 12 3 _14_b 4 6

2 12 4 13 7 8a 4 9
6 8 4 14 4 _15_a 2 9
2 13 -- 12 8 8b -- --
5 9 6 10 -- 3b 4 6

Am. 10 10 4 12 6 _14_a 5 5
4 12 6 9 7 8a 4 4
5 12 8 9 7 _10_b 3 4
3 7 5 8 5 7b 2 4

10 13 5 10 4 _10_a 4 6
1 9 4 9 3 5a 3 5
2 8 3 5 -- _8_b 1 5
1 7 2 7 5 _8_b 2 3

G. 6 13 6 13 7 _12_a 1 10
6 10 6 6 _7_ _7_a 1 8
4 9 7 7 _6_ 9b 1 7
7 12 4 10 2 7b 1 7

10 12 4 11 6 _10_a -- 8
5 12 5 11 6 _10_a -- 8
3 9 6 9 _7_ _9_b 3 8
2 8 5 9 5 5b 1 6

D. 10 12 10 10 7 9a 7 11
5 8 6 9 7 7? 6 6
5 12 7 9 6 _10_b -- 8
6 9 7 10 7 7b 5 5

10 15 5 11 6 9a -- 9
5 9 4 8 6 6a? 6 7
7 11 7 11 _11_ _13_b 8 10
8 11 8 10 7 9b 6 8

INTENSITIES OF IAMBIC TETRAMETERS WITH RHYMES IN THE SECOND FOOT.

' ' ' '
_ - _ - _ - _ -
Hu. 5 6 6 6a 5 7 5 6
5 6 5 4a 5 4 5 6?
5 6 6 7b 5 6 4 7
5 6 4 4b 5 7 4 7
5 7 7 7a 6 7 6 6
5 7 5 5a 5 6 5 6?
5 7 _6_ 8b 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 5b 6 7 6 7
Mc. 5 7 6 _10a_ 5 4 3 5
1 6 6 _8a_ - 6 1 4
1 6 6 _10b_ 1 4 - 4
- 7 6 5b 3 3 - 3
Ha. 16 14 _8_ _10a_ 6 10 5 9
5 10 7 8a 5 9 5 7
2 8 4 _11b_ 4 7 2 8
2 8 4 6b 1 9 4 8
7 12 7 _10a_ - 10 6 10
3 10 5 8a 5 8 6 10
2 8 3 _11b_ 3 7 3 10
- 7 5 9b 4 8 6 12
Am. 4 9 _9_ _10a_ 4 7 4 5
4 8 _9_ _7a_ 5 7 4 6
1 8 5 _10b_ 4 6 3 6
- 10 _10_ 7b_ 3 5 2 7
15 15 _10_ 13a_ 9 11 - 11
5 12 7 9a 4 10 4 9
5 8 _8_ _9b_ 4 7 - 6
7 8 5 _9b_ 2 4 - 3
G. 2 6 _6_ _8a_ 1 7 2 3
- 10 _7_ _12a_ 1 9 4 8
4 9 _6_ _9b_ 8 8 2 7
- - - -b - - - -
4 9 _5_ _11_a - 7 4 6
- 8 6 7a 2 7 4 5
- 9 _7_ _6_b - 7 3 6
- 7 3 5 - 5 - 3
D. - - - - - - - -
7 11 _11_ _9_a 7 11 6 10
11 15 11 11a 8 11 9 14
6 10 _10_ 8b 7 8 7 11
12 13 10 10a 7 1? 8 11
6 10 9 8a 5 8 5 9
9 12 12 13b 8 10 7 9
7 11 _10_ 7b 4 8 4 8

The values surrounded by '_'s (Transcriber's Note: Original
italics) show the increase in intensity. Rhymes are indicated
by 'a' and 'b.'

IV. SUGGESTIONS FOR A MOTOR THEORY OF RHYTHM.

If the basis of rhythm is to be found in muscular sensations, rather
than in the supposed activity of some special 'mental' function, the
nature of the movement cycle involved is of the greatest interest.

In every case where a rhythm comes to peripheral expression, there are
two opposing sets of muscles involved. If a rhythmic movement be
attempted with but a single set of muscles at work, it is very
unsatisfactory and soon ends in the tonic contraction of the muscle
set. One may assume that in all cases of rhythm perception there is a
cycle of movement sensations involved, and that the simplest possible
case of a peripheral rhythmic movement is the type of any rhythm. In
tapping a rhythm with the finger, the flexors which bring the finger
down become the positive muscle set, and the opposing extensor muscles
which raise the finger for the next blow become the negative muscle
set.

In Fig. 9 the upper curve represents the actual movement of the finger
tip, and the heavy lines _a_, _a'_, _a''_ represent the
pressure-tension-sound sensation which we call the 'beat,' and which
is the limiting sensation of the rhythm, and the regulating factor in
the movement cycle of the rhythm. The movement is divided into two
phases; _B_, the phase of relaxation, during which the finger is
raised, and _A_, the phase of contraction, during which the finger
delivers the blow which produces the beat.

The curves below represent the changes in the two opposing sets of
muscles whose interaction brings about the movement cycle. The
contraction of the flexors, the positive muscle set, is represented by
the curve above the base line. It is obvious that during the
contraction phase, the contraction in the positive muscle set is at
its height; it continues at a maximum during the limiting sensation
and then dies away during the relaxation phase. The sensations from
this positive muscle set have the principal place in consciousness
during the rhythm experience. The curve below the base line represents
the contraction of the extensors, the negative muscle set. The
contraction of the negative muscles reaches its climax very soon after
the maximum contraction of the positive muscles, in the contraction
phase. The sharp tension between the two opposing sets of muscles at
the limiting sensation may be made very apparent if the finger beats
the rhythm entirely in the air; in that case the limiting sensation
consists entirely of the feeling of a sudden increase of tension
between the positive and negative muscle sets. During the relaxation
phase the contraction of the negative muscles continues, but the
tension between the two sets grows less and less, for the positive
muscles are rapidly relaxing. At the highest point in the movement
either muscle set is exerting but very little strain; the condition is
represented in the figure by the approach of either curve to the
base-line; the amount of tension between the two sets is figured by
the distance of the two curves from each other.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.]

Assuming such a movement cycle, in which the tension between the two
opposing sets never comes to zero until the close of the series, it is
not difficult to arrange many of the facts of rhythmic perception
under the motor theory.

1. The feeling of rhythm is more definite as we proceed in a verse, or
a series of simple sound sensations. At first the cycle is not
perfectly adjusted and complete automatism established.

2. If an observer is listening to a series, and an unusually long
pause is introduced between two beats, there is always a feeling of
suspense or tension during the 'lag.' As long as the tensions are
maintained there is a rhythmic continuity; the feeling of tension is
the strain of opposition between the opposing muscle sets.

3. The continuity of the rhythmic series, whereby all the beats of a
period seem to belong to a single whole, is due to the continuity of
the muscle sensations involved and the continuous feeling of slight
tension between the positive and negative muscle sets; nowhere within
the period does the feeling of strain die out.

4. But at the close of the period we have a pause which is
demonstrably not a function of any of the intervals of the period.
During this pause the tension between the two sets 'dies out,' and we
have a feeling of finality. This gradual dying out of the tension is
clearly seen in the constant appearance of the cone-shaped final
syllable at the end of each nonsense verse.

5. The period composed of a number of unit groups (the verse, in
nonsense syllables) has a general form which suggests strongly that it
has the unity of a single cooerdinated movement. There is no more
reason for assuming a transcendental mental activity in the case of a
rhythmic period than in the case of a single act which appears in
consciousness as a unity. Undoubtedly the breathing is correlated with
the rhythmic movements and may be a factor in determining the verse
period. Meumann's principal accent, about which a number of
subordinate accents are grouped, is characteristic not only of poetry
but of the simplest rhythms. At some point in the period there is a
definite climax, a chief accent; the movement 'rises' to that point
and then falls off. This is strikingly seen in nonsense verses spoken
with a heavy accent within the verse. The accent does not stand out
from a dead level, but the verse culminates at that point.

Unfortunately very little is known of the mechanism of so simple a
cooerdinated muscular activity as that necessary for a simple rhythm.
Sherrington[17] and Hering[18]have pointed out the primary character
of the grouping of the muscles in opposing sets and the reciprocal
nature of almost all muscular activity, but in a review of the work of
cooerdinated movements Hering denies any simultaneous stimulation of
the two sets and considers the question of the innervation mechanism
of opposing muscle-sets entirely unsettled.

[17] Sherrington, C.S.: _Proceedings Royal Soc._, 1897, p. 415.

[18] Hering, H.E.: _Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol._ (Pflueger's),
1897, Bd. 68, S. 222; _ibid._, 1898, Bd. 70, S. 559.

That the connection between the positive and negative set of muscles
in a rhythmic movement is very close, and that the reaction is of the
circular type, is evident from the automatic character of all rhythmic
movements, and it is evident that the limiting sensation is the
primary cue in the reaction. Anything further is mere hypothesis.
Robert Mueller's[19] thorough criticism of the Mosso ergograph throws
great doubt on the present methods of investigation and invalidates
conclusions from the various curves of voluntary movements which have
been obtained.

[19] Mueller, R.: _Phil. Stud._, 1901, Bd. 17, S. 1.

The curve of contraction and relaxation of a simple muscle is well
known and is not affected by Mueller's criticism. Its chief
characteristic, with or without opposing tension, is the inequality
of the intervals of the contraction and relaxation phases. As one
might expect, since a single set of muscles dominates in a rhythmic
movement, the typical rhythmic curve has the general character of the
curve of the simple muscle. The average values of the phases of curves
of simple rhythmic movement obtained by A. Cleghorn[20] from a large
number of observations with at least three subjects, are as follows:
phase of contraction, .44 second; phase of relaxation, .54 second. It
is very significant for a motor theory of rhythm that this general
form of the curve of rhythmic movement may easily be altered in all
sorts of fashions by unusual stimuli to the two muscle sets.

[20] Cleghorn, A.: _Am. Journal of Physiol._, 1898, I., p. 336.

While it is well recognized that a rhythm does not consist necessarily
of sound sensations, the 'rhythmization' of a series of sound
sensations in the ordinary perceived rhythms is a matter of great
interest. Ewald found strong reasons for believing that the ear is
peculiarly connected with the motor apparatus. The experiments of
Hofbauer[21] and Cleghorn[22]show that any strong stimulus to either
eye or ear modifies decidedly the reactions of cooerdinated muscles.
How shall we assume that the automatic movement cycle necessary to
rhythmic perception is set up when one listens to a series of sounds?

[21] Hofbauer: _Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol._ (Pflueger's), 1897,
Bd. 68, S. 553.

[22] Cleghorn, A.: _op. cit._

It must be assumed that any chance sound sets up a contraction in a
set of muscles, however large or small. If but a single sound occurs,
the phase of contraction in that muscle set is followed by a longer
phase of relaxation, and the musculature is passive as before; it may
be that the stretching of the antagonistic set of muscles weakly
stimulates them, and they then contract during the relaxation phase
and assist in restoring the original condition.

But if a second sound occurs toward the end of the relaxation phase,
before the tension is quite exhausted, the movement will be repeated;
the negative set of muscles will be more definitely stimulated, for
the activity will not have been exhausted when the second sound
occurs. If the sound continues to recur at regular intervals, the
movement cycle thus established will rapidly become cooerdinated. The
positive set in its vigorous contraction furnishes a limiting
sensation which becomes a cue for its own relaxation and for the
reciprocal contraction of the negative muscle set. The contraction of
the negative muscle set and the resulting changes in tension may
become in turn a cue for the positive set. The reaction is now of the
circular type and the process has become self-regulative, though
constantly reinforced by the recurring sound (which has become a part
of the limiting sensation of the rhythmic movement cycle).

But it is very probable that the second sound may not be timed so as
to come at the close of the relaxation phase in the set of muscles
roused; moreover, in almost all rhythms there are secondary sounds
occurring between the main beats. What happens when a sound occurs out
of place, early in the phase of relaxation, or just before or just
after the climax in the contraction phase? Does it make it impossible
to establish the cooerdination, or destroy it if already established?

Hofbauer demonstrated that a stimulus which appears in close proximity
to the limiting sensation, _either before or after_, always increases
the force of the reaction, so that such a slight displacement could
not affect the rhythm, which would quickly readjust itself. The
possibility of a stimulus occurring in the relaxation phase is of much
more importance for a motor theory of the initiation of a rhythmic
movement. Cleghorn made the stimulus occur at the beginning of the
relaxation phase. Instead of prolonging or reinstating the contraction
phase, he found that the stimulus _intensified the relaxation process
and shortened its period_. "The stimulated relaxation is not only
quicker than the normal, but also more complete; the end of the normal
relaxation is slow; ... relaxation under the influence of the
stimulus, on the contrary, shows nothing of this, but is a sudden
sharp drop directly to the base line and sometimes below it." A
comparison of the normal phases with the same phases, when the
stimulus occurs within the relaxation phase, follows:

Normal: Contraction-phase, .44 sec.; relaxation-phase, .54 sec.;
total, .98 sec.
With stim.: Contraction-phase, .47 sec.: relaxation-phase, .30 sec.;
total, .77 sec.

It will be noticed that the total time of the movement cycle is
reduced. One may then assume that a sound which occurs too early to
become a factor in the limiting sensation, functions as a stimulus to
the relaxation process and shortens the interval between the limiting
sensations. Thus the movement cycle would be modified, but not
destroyed. It is impossible to say just how the relaxation process is
affected, and Cleghorn's own conclusions are open to criticism in the
light of Mueller's comments on the method. The simplest assumption
would be that the stimulus acted on the negative set of muscles.

E.W. Scripture[23] objects to such a 'tonus theory,' because some
subjects regularly react _before_ the signal. But in no case in the
published records to which he refers is the error more than.05 sec.
either before or after the signal. The investigation of Hofbauer shows
conclusively that in such cases the effect of the external stimulus
simply fuses with the limiting sensation. Scripture overlooks the
automatic character of the rhythmic movement.

[23] Scripture, E.W.: 'The New Psychology,' London, 1897, p. 182.

There is a striking difference between rhythmic movement from unit
group to unit group within a period, and movement from period to
period (_i.e._, from verse to verse of nonsense syllables). Each foot
is simply the repetition of the movement cycle; all the tensions are
maintained, and each foot is an integral part of a larger act. At the
close of the period (verse) the active tensions die out, either
because of the introduction of some unusual stimulus which causes the
positive muscle set to strike a heavy blow, and abruptly upset the
balanced tensions, or because a pause of indefinite length ensues in
which the tensions die out. This is the process which we call
'finality.'

In the stanza there is evidently a different type of unity from that
in the single verse. When we hear the first verse of the stanza, we do
not know what the verse whole is, until the finality factor or the
verse pause is reached, at its close. Then the verse has a certain
definite cumulative effect, a synthetic effect which results from the
echoes of the various movements and the total effect on the organism.
One may call it the tetrameter feeling. The verse pause may vary
within large limits, but after a few verses there is a definite
scheme, or 'Gestaltqualitaet,' which represents the verse unity. It is
some sort of a memory image, which functions as a cue to the motor
process. This motor image, set of strains, or whatever it be, is more
than a mere standard by which we judge the present verse. The memory
image fuses in some way with the living motor process. _The preceding
verse affects the character of the following verse._ An irregularity,
easily noted in the first verse, is obscure in the second, and not
detected in the third verse, when the verses are identical.

The experiments of Hofbauer and Cleghorn, and many facts about the
unit groups themselves, make it evident that the function of stimuli,
during the movement cycle, varies with the position of the stimulus in
that cycle. This offers a possible explanation of the striking
peculiarities of the unit groups. The iamb [\/ _'] and the trochee [_'
\/] should be quite alike for a general synthesizing process; but not
only is the experiential character of the two quite unlike, but the
ratio between their intervals is entirely different.

A number of measurements by different observers show that in the
iambic foot the unaccented syllable is proportionately much shorter
than the unaccented syllable in the trochaic foot. It is very easy to
beat a simple up-and-down accompaniment to a series of simple feet of
nonsense syllables; in the accompaniment the bottom of the down
stroke, the limiting sensation of the movement cycle, coincides with
the accented syllable of the foot. It is not an unwarranted assumption
that such a fundamental accompaniment represents the fundamental
movement cycle of that rhythm.

During the present investigation several observers were asked to
determine at just what point in the fundamental movement the
unaccented syllable occurred, when the subject gave a series of
nonsense syllables. In the fundamental accompaniment the excursion of
the hand and arm was at least.4 meter. Four subjects were thus tested,
and the results were uniform in the case of all the simple types of
unit groups.

In the case of the iamb the unaccented syllable occurs at the top of
the movement, at the very beginning of the contraction phase (A, in
Fig. 5).