Various - Harvard Psychological Studies, Volume 1

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From this point of view the justification of the metaphor of
mechanical balance is quite clear. Given two lines, the most pleasing
arrangement makes the larger near the center, and the smaller far from
it. This is balanced because the spontaneous impulse of attention to
the near, large line, equals in amount the involuntary expenditure of
attention to apprehend the small farther one. And this expenditure of
motor impulses is pleasing, because it is the type of motor impulses
most in harmony with our own physical organism.

We may thus think of a space to be composed as a kind of target, in
which certain spots or territories count more or less, both according
to their distance from the center and according to what fills them.
Every element of a picture, in whatever way it gains power to excite
motor impulses, is felt as expressing that power in the flat pattern.
A noble vista is understood and enjoyed as a vista, but it is
_counted_ in the motor equation, our 'balance,' as a spot of so much
intrinsic value at such and such a distance from the center. The
skilful artist will fill his target in the way to give the maximum of
motor impulses with the perfection of balance between them.

IV. SYMMETRY IN PICTURES.

_A. The Balancing Factors._

The experimental treatment of suggestions as to the elements in
pictorial composition has furnished an hypothesis for the basis of our
pleasure in a well-composed picture, and for the particular function
of each of the several elements. This hypothesis may be expressed as
follows: (1) The basis of aesthetic pleasure in composition is a
_balance of motor impulses_ on the part of the spectator; (2) this
balance of motor impulses is brought about by means of the elements,
through the power which they possess of drawing the attention with
more or less strength towards a certain field. But to the experimental
working out of an hypothesis must succeed a verification, in its
application to the masterpieces of civilized art. We have, then, to
ask whether there is in all great pictures a balance, _i.e._, an equal
distribution of attention on the two sides of the central line
suggested by the frame of the picture. It might be, for instance, that
a picture of pleasing composition would show, when analyzed, all the
attractions for attention on one side; which would go far to impugn
either our hypothesis of balance as the basis of pleasure, or our
attribution of particular functions to the elements. But as this
second matter may be considered to have been sufficiently determined
by the results of the preceding section, the first question only
remains: Is there a balance of attention in a good picture--or rather,
in the particular good pictures known to the student of art?

This question could only be answered by the examination of a large
number of pictures of accepted merit, and it was also desirable that
they should be studied in a form which lent itself to the easy
comparison of one picture with another. These conditions seemed to be
best fulfilled by the collection of reproductions in black and white
known as the _Classischer Bilderschatz_, published by F. Bruckmann, at
Munich, which contains over a thousand pictures arranged in schools.
Of these a thousand were taken--substantially the first thousand
issued, after the frescoes, triptych doors, panels, etc., which are
evidently parts of a larger whole, had been laid aside. In the
following discussion the pictures will be designated, when they are
not further described, by the numbers which they bear in this
collection.

The equations in the following discussion are based on a system of
exact measurement, corresponding to that followed in the experimental
section. This numerical treatment is pre-supposed in all the general
attributions of balance in the analysis of single pictures. The method
of measurement was given by the conditions of viewing pictures, which
are framed and thus isolated from surrounding influences, and
referred, as compositions, to the middle line suggested by this
emphasized frame. An adjustable frame of millimeter paper, divided in
half vertically by a white silk thread, was fitted over the picture to
be measured, and measurements were made to left and to right of this
thread-line and, as required, vertically, by reference to the
millimeter frame divisions.

The main question, of course, to be answered by a statistical
examination of these thousand pictures refers to the existence of
balance, but many other problems of symmetry are also seen to be
closely involved; the relative frequency of the elements in pictures
of different types, and the result of their employment in producing
certain emotional effects, also the general types of space arrangement
as a whole, the feeling-tone belonging to them, and the relation
between content and shape. The first question will not be treated in
this paper in the statistical fulness which was necessary to establish
my conclusions in the investigation itself, inasmuch as the tables
were very extensive. But examples of the tables, together with the
full results, will be given, and a sufficient amount of detailed
discussion to show my methods. The two other subjects, the use of the
elements and the types of composition, will be briefly treated. I
expect in other publications to go more closely into statistical
detail on these matters than is possible in a merely experimental
thesis.

In the beginning of the proposed statistical analysis a natural
objection must first be forestalled: it will be said, and truly, that
color also has its effect in bringing about balance, and that a set of
black and white reproductions, therefore, ignores an important
element. To this it may be answered, first, that as a matter of fact
the color scheme is, as it were, superimposed upon the space-shape,
and with a balance of its own, all the elements being interdependent;
and secondly, that the black and white does render the intensity
contrasts of the colors very well, giving as light and dark, and thus
as interesting (= attractive) and the reverse, those factors in the
scheme which are most closely related to the complex of motor
impulses. After having compared, in European galleries, the originals
of very many of these reproductions with the equation of balance
worked out from the black and white, the writer has seldom found an
essential correction needed.

The pictures were first classified by subjects. This may seem less
logical than a division by types of arrangement. But it really, for a
majority, amounted to the same thing, as the historical masterpieces
of art mostly follow conventional arrangements; thus the altarpieces,
portraits, genre pictures, etc., were mostly after two or three
models, and this classification was of great convenience from every
other point of view. The preliminary classification was as follows:
(1) Religious, Allegorical and Mythical Pictures; (2) Portraits; (3)
Genre; (4) Landscape. The historical pictures were so extremely few
that they were included in the religious, as were also all the
allegorical pictures containing Biblical persons. Some pictures, of
which Watteau's are representative, which hovered between genre and
landscape, were finally classified according as they seemed to owe
their interest to the figures or to the scenery. A preliminary
classification of space arrangements, still with reference to content,
showed three large general types: (1) A single subject or group in the
middle; (2) the same somewhat on one side, with subordinate elements
occupying the rest of the space; (3) two objects or groups each
occupying a well-defined center. These were designated as Single
Center, Single and Subordinate Center, and Double Center pictures, or
S.C., S. & S., and D.C. They are in proportions of S.C. 79 per cent.,
S. & S. 5 percent., D.C. 16 per cent. The D.C. type is evidently
already explicitly balanced as regards shape and intrinsic interest,
and is hence of comparative unimportance to our problem. The S.C. will
show a balance, if at all, in more or less accessory factors; S. & S.,
broadly, between interest and other factors. As logically more
important, this last group will be treated more fully. The full
classification of the thousand pictures by subjects is as follows:

S.C. D.C. S.S.
Altarpieces 78 70 7 1
Madonna & Child 47 47 0 0
Holy Family 67 40 14 13
Adorations 19 19 0 0
Crucifixions 23 21 0 2
Descents f. Cross 27 26 0 1
Annunciations 21 0 21 0
Misc. Religious 162 93 55 14
Allegorical 46 36 6 4
Genre 93 63 19 11
Landscape 88 65 22 1
Portrait Groups 64 42 17 5
Relig. Single Fig. 28 28 0 0
Alleg. Single Fig. 12 12 0 0
Portrait Single Fig. 207 207 0 0
Genre Single Fig. 18 18 0 0

Altarpieces.

The pictures of the first group, consisting of the _Madonna_ and
_Infant Christ_ surrounded by worshippers, and briefly designated as
Altarpieces, are good for detailed study because they present a simple
type, and it will be easy to show whether the variations from symmetry
are in the direction of balance or not. A few examples will make this
clear. The Madonna in the S.C. pictures is invariably seated holding
the Christ.

In the following descriptions M. will denote Madonna, C. Child, Cn.
central line. The elements, Size or Mass, Direction of Motion or
Attention, Direction of Line, Vista, and Interest, will be set down as
Ms., D., L., V., and I. A couple of examples will show the method of
describing and of drawing a conclusion as to balance.

1. 969. Lorenzo Lotto, _Madonna with St. Bernard and St. Onofrius._ C.
is on one side turning to the same; M. leans far to the other; hence
interest in C., and direction of C.'s attention are over against Mass
of M. and direction of M.'s attention; _i.e._, I. + D. = Ms. + D., and
so far, balance. The surrounding saints are insignificant, and we may
make the equation I. = Ms.

2. 368. Raffaelino di Francesco, _Madonna Enthroned._ The C. is on
Right facing front, M. turns away Left, hence interest in C. is over
against direction of M.'s attention. Moreover, all the saints but one
turn Left, and of two small vistas behind the throne, the one on the
Left is deeper. The superior interest we feel in C. is thus balanced
by the tendency of attention to the opposite side, and we have I. = D.
+ V.

It is clear that the broad characteristics of the composition can be
symmetrically expressed, so that a classification of the 70 S.C.
altarpieces can be made on a basis of these constant elements, in the
order of decreasing balance. Thus: Class 1, below, in which the C. is
one side of the central line, turned away from the center, the M.
turned to the other, balances in these broad lines, or I. + D. = D.;
while in (9), I. + D. + D. = (x), the constant elements work all on
one side.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALTARPIECES.

1 C. one side turned to same, M. to other 11
2 " " " other, " " 8
3 " " " front, " " 2
4 " " " other, M. front. 9
5 " " " facing M. 6
6 " " " front, M. front. 7
7 " " " " M. turned to same. 6
8 " " " to same M. turned front. 7
9 " " " " M. " to same, 14
10 " in middle, turned front. 0

Thus the constant elements, understanding always that C. has more
interest than M., are as follows: For (1) I. + D. = D.; (2) I. = D. +
D.; (3) I. = D.; (4) I. = D.; (5) I. + D. = D.; etc. These are in
order of complete balance, but it will be seen that from (7) on, while
the factors are constant, the framework is not balanced; _e.g._ in (9)
both I. and D. work on the same side. For these groups, therefore, the
variations, if there is balance, will be more striking. Eliminating
the balancing elements in the framework, the tables for the ten groups
are:

(1) I. + D. = D. (2) I. = D. + D(M). (3) I. = D.
969. I. = Ms. 680. I. = D. 1094. Ms. + I. = I. + D.
601. I. = Ms. 735. I. = D. 33. I. = I. + D
49. I. = Ms. + I. 1121. I. = D.
634. I. = Ms. + I. 1035. I. = D. (4) I. = D.
584. I. = I. 333. I. = I. + D. 775. I. = D.
686. I. = I. 80. I. = I. + D. 746. I. = D.
794. I. = D. 753. I. = I. + D. 1106. I. = Ms. + D.
164. I. = D. 1114. I. = D. + L. 781. I. = Ms. + D.
368. I. = D. + V. 1131. I. = I. + D.
927. I. = V. 517. I. = I. + D.
273. I. = V. 327. I. + Ms. = D. + V.
951. I. + L. = D. + V.
715. Unbalanced.

(5) I. + D. = D. (6) I. = (7) I. + D. =
43. I. = I. 854. I. = Ms. 725. I. + D. = I. + L.
711. I. = I. 1148. I. = I. 206. I. + D. = I. + L.
447. I. = Ms. 709. I. = D. 155. I. + D. = D. + L.
643. I. = Ms. 907. I. = D. 739. I. + D. = L.
777. I. = Ms. + I. 586. I. = Ms. + I. 331. I. + D. = V.
637. I. = Ms. + I. 137. I. = Ms. + I. 980. Unbalanced.
187. Unbalanced.

(8) I. + D. = (9) I. + (D. + D.) = (10) 0.
57. I. + D. = Ms. 835. I. + D. = Ms + I.
979. I. + D. = I. + L. 724. I. + D. = Ms + L.
134. I. + D. = D. 495. I. + D. = Ms + L.
106. I. + D. = D. + V. 182. I. + D. = Ms + V.
220. I. + D. = L. 817. I. + D. = I.
118. I. + D. = V. + L. 662. I. + D. = I.
157. Unbalanced. 806. I. + D. = I.
1136. I. + D. = I. + L.
865. I. + D. = I. + V.
1023. I. + D. = V.
531. I. + D. = L.
553. I. + D. = L.

The most used element is I., in 100 per cent. of cases; the least
used, V., 13 per cent. D., in 91 per cent. of cases; Ms., 26 per
cent.; L., 19 per cent. 175, 433, unbalanced.

As seen in the table, a balance of elements is kept, except in four
cases which will be hereafter considered. In all cases the balance is
between the interest in C., sometimes plus D., (in the attention of
the figures to C.), on the one side, and other elements on the other.
Very seldom are other salient points found on the C. side. When the C.
side is especially 'heavy,' the number of opposing elements increases,
and especially takes the form of V. and L. [cf. (7), (8), (9)], which
were observed in the experimental chapter to be powerful in attracting
attention. For the fairly well-balancing framework--(i), (2), (3) and
(4)--Ms., I., and D. are much more often the opposing elements.

The pictures listed as unbalanced are, with one exception, among the
oldest examples given; conceived in the most slavish geometrical
symmetry in which, indeed, the geometrical outline almost hides the
fact that the slight variations are all toward a lack of balance.

There is but one S. & S. case (1054), Titian, _The Madonna of the
House of Pesaro_. In this, M. and C. are on a high throne on the
Right, other figures lower down on the Left bearing a flag that leans
back to the Left. All the lines of the figures and of the massive
architecture and the general direction of attention bear down so
strongly to Left that the importance of the Right figures is balanced.
We should have, then, I. = I. + L. + D. The D.C. cases, seven in
number, are remarkably alike. Six have a vista separating the two
groups, in five remarkably deep and beautiful, as if to fix the
oscillating attention there. In all, M. and C., either in position or
by the direction of their lines, are nearer the Cn. than the opposing
figures, which are naturally less interesting, thus giving an instance
of the mechanical balance. Their general equation, then, would be I. =
M. or M. + L. Having shown that the small variations from the general
symmetrical type of altar-pieces are invariably, except in primitive
examples, in the direction of substitutional symmetry, or balance, we
may next study the Madonna pictures, using the same classifications
for purposes of comparison.

MADONNA WITH INFANT CHRIST.

(1) I. + D. = D. (2) I. = D. + D. (4) I. = D.
56. I. = L. 271. I. = D. + L. 668. I. = D. + Ms.
332. I. = L. 867. I. = D. + V. + D. 14. I. = D. + I.
633. I. = D. 91. I. = D. + V.
(3) I. = D. 1111. I. = D. + V.
144. I. = D. 1011. I. = D. = L.
521. I. = D. 915. I. = D. = L.
356. I. = L. + D. + D.
296. I. + Ms. = V. + L.

(5) I. + D. = D. (6) I. =
51. I. = D. 596. I. = Ms.
581. I. = D. 892. I. = Ms.
829. I. = D. + I. 224. I. = I. + D.
159. I. = I. + D. 908. I. = D. + L.
683. I. = D. + L.
1045. I. = I. + L. (7) I. + D. =
745. I. = I. + L. 344. I. + D. = Ms.
734. I. = D. + L. 949. I. + D. = Ms. + V. + L.
404. I. = D. + L. 608. I. + D. = L.
248. I. = L. 524. I. + D. = L.
37. I. = L.
97. I. = L. (8) 0.
363. I. = V. + L.
674. I. = V. + L. (9) I. + D. + D. =
62. I. = V. + L. 361. I. + D. = L.
1142. I. = V. + L.
1018. I. = V. + L. (10)
110. I. + V. = Ms. + L. 538. I. = D.
411. I. + V. = Ms. + L. 614. I. + Ms. = V.
771. I. + Ms. = V. + L. 34. D. = Ms. + L.

Most used element, I., 100 per cent.; least used, Ms., 21 per cent.
D., 96 per cent.; L., 64 per cent.; V., 27 per cent.

The first thing to be noted, on comparing this table with the
preceding, is the remarkable frequency of the use of the vista and the
line. Among the altarpieces, the direction of attention was the
element most often opposed to the interesting object; and next to
that, another object of interest. These two elements, however, here
sink into comparative insignificance. In general, balance is brought
about through the disposition of form rather than of interests. This
appears in comparing the numbers; against the use of L. in 19 per
cent. of the cases among the altarpieces, we have 64 per cent. among
the Madonna pictures; V. is used in the former cases 13 per cent. of
the times, in the latter 27 per cent. The reason for this would appear
to be that the lack of accessories in the person of saints,
worshippers, etc., and the consequent increase in the size of M. and
C. in the picture heightens the effect of any given outline, and so
makes the variations from symmetry greater. This being the case, the
compensations would be stronger--and as we have learned that V. and L.
are of this character, we see why they are needed. None of the M. and
C., S.C. pictures fails to give a complete balance of elements
according to hypothesis. There are no well-defined cases of S. & S. or
D.C.

Portraits.

A study of the Madonna pictures of all types, then, results in an
overwhelming confirmation of the hypothesis of substitutional
symmetry. It may be objected that the generally symmetrical framework
of these pictures suggests a complete balance, and the next step in
our analysis would, therefore, be a type of picture which is less
bound by tradition to the same form. The portrait would seem to
combine this desideratum with generally large and simple outlines, so
that the whole surface can be statistically reported with comparative
ease. A detailed analysis of a couple of portraits may justify the
classification adopted.

900. Anton Raphael Mengs, _Self-Portrait_. The head of the painter is
exactly in Cn., but is turned sharply to Right, while his shoulders
turn Left. His arm and hand are stretched out down to Right, while his
other hand, holding pencil, rests on his portfolio to Left. Hence, the
D. of attention plus that of L. on Right, balances I. in implements,
plus D. of body on Left, or D. + L. = D. + I.

438. B. van der Helst, _Portrait of Paul Potter_. The head of the
subject is entirely to Left of Cn., his easel on Right. His body is
turned sharply to Right, and both hands, one holding palette and
brushes, are stretched down to Right. His full face and frontward
glance are on Left. Hence, Ms. + I. in person balances I. in
implements + D. of L., or Ms. + I. = I. + L.

It is seen that the larger elements in these pictures are the
directions of the head and body, and the position of the head, with
reference to Cn. The following classification is based on this
framework.

CLASSIFICATION OF PORTRAITS.

A. Head in Cn.
I. Body front, head front, 6
II. Body turned, head turned other way, 7 D. = D.
III. Body turned, head front, 31 D. =
IV. Body front, head turned, 1 D. =
V. Body turned, head turned same way, 106 D. + D. =

B. Head not in Cn.
I. Body turned to empty side, head to same, 18 Ms.=D.
II. Body turned to empty side, head front, 23 Ms. = D.
III. Body turned to empty side, head to other, 3 Ms. + D. = D.
IV. Body front, head front, 2 Ms. =
V. Body turned from empty side, head same way, 10 Ms. + D. =

This is also in order of less complete balancing of the original
elements. The principal characteristics of the different divisions are
as follows:--

A.
I. (Symmetrical.) Most used element, L.; least used, V.

II. (Balanced, D. = D.) Most used element, L.; least used, V.

III. (D. = .) Most used element, Ms., in 74 per cent, of cases
opposed to D.; in 30 per cent, of cases, D. of glance opposed
to D. of body; least used, V. (1 per cent.).

IV. One case only.

V. (D. = .) Most used element, Ms., in 73 per cent. of cases
opposed to D.; in 40 per cent. of cases, D. of glance opposed
to D.; in 28 per cent. Ms. + D. of glance opposed to D.; least
used element, V. (15 per cent.). I. 39 per cent.; L. 38 per cent.

B.
I. (Balanced, Ms. + I. = D.) Most used element (not counting
those already included in equation), I., 55 per cent.; least
used, V., 2 per cent.; L., 50 per cent. In 44 per cent., D. of
glance opposed to D.

II. (Ms. + I. = D.) Most used element (not in equation), I., 52
per cent. Least used, V., 26 per cent. L., 43 per cent. In 21
per cent., D. of glance opposed to D.

III. (Ms. + I. + D. = D.) Three cases. Two cases V. on empty
side.

IV. (Ms. + I. = .) Two cases. One case V. on empty side.

V. (Ms. + I. + D. = .) Most used element, L., 60 per cent.;
least used, V., 10 per cent.; 33-1/3 per cent., D. of glance to
empty side.

The portrait class is an especially interesting object for study,
inasmuch as while its general type is very simple and constant, for
this very reason the slightest variations are sharply felt, and have
their very strongest characteristic effect. We shall, therefore, find
that the five principal factors in composition express themselves very
clearly. The general type of the portrait composition is, of course,
the triangle with the head at the apex, and this point is also
generally in the central line--in 73 per cent. of the whole number of
cases, as is seen from the table. All cases but one are longer than
they are wide, most are half-length or more. Nevertheless, great
richness of effect is brought about by emphasizing variations. For
instance, the body and head are, in the great majority of cases,
turned in the same way, giving the strongest possible emphasis to the
direction of attention--especially powerful, of course, where all the
interest is in the personality. But it is to be observed that the very
strongest suggestion of direction is given by the direction of the
glance; and in no case, when most of the other elements are directed
in one way, does the glance fail to come backward. (Cf. A. II., V.,
and B. I., II., V.)