Various - Scientific American Supplement, No. 711, August 17, 1889
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Various >> Scientific American Supplement, No. 711, August 17, 1889
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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 711
NEW YORK, AUGUST 17, 1889
Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXVIII., No. 711.
Scientific American established 1845
Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
* * * * *
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
I. AGRICULTURE.--How to Raise Turkeys.--A collection of hints
and suggestions on the raising of the delicate fowls, so
often the cause of trouble to farmers. 11364
Pear Duchesse D'Angouleme.--The history of the famous pear
tree, with hints as to its culture and general treatment. 11362
II. BIOLOGY.--Development of the Embryo.--A note of some
interesting biological researches.--By Prof. PREYER,
of Berlin. 11365
The "Hatchery" of the Sun Fish.--A curious incident in the
life history of the common sunfish.--1 illustration. 11363
III. CHEMISTRY.--On Allotropic Forms of Silver.--By M. CAREY
LEA.--A continuation of this paper, containing one of the
most important researches in the history of silver, with
statement of interesting results attained. 11361
On the Occurrence of Paraffine in Crude Petroleum.--A
valuable contribution to the history of paraffine, with
reference to petroleum and ozokerite. 11361
Turpentine and its Products.--By EDWARD DAVIES.--A resume
of the work done by chemists in the turpentine products.
--The different compounds produced therefrom. 11361
IV. ELECTRICITY.--Electric Lighting at the Paris Exhibition.
--The Oerlikon works.--A very exhaustive exhibition of
electric apparatus described and illustrated.--12
illustrations. 11356
Magnetism in its Relation to Induced Electromotive Force
and Current.--By ELIHU THOMSON.--A most impressive paper,
bringing the obscure laws of magnetic induction within the
understanding of all without the application of
mathematics.--12 illustrations. 11354
The Ader Flourish of Trumpets.--One of the curiosities in
telephony from the Paris exhibition, by which sounds are
transmitted to a large audience.--4 illustrations. 11358
The Electric Motor Tests on the New York Elevated
Railroad.--Abstracts of tests which were recently made of
the Daft motor on the elevated railroad of this city. 11353
V. ETHNOLOGY.--Ancient Lake Dwellings.--Interesting abstract
of what is known about lake dwellings, the history of
their construction, and the "finds" made on the sites by
archaeologists. 11363
VI. FORESTRY.--Succession of Forest Growths.--A valuable paper
on forestry, treating of the evils done by man and a plea
for the necessity of intelligent treatment of our woods. 11362
VII. HYGIENE AND MEDICINE.--Acetic Acid as a Disinfectant.--Use
of acetic acid in septic medical cases as a substitute
for carbolic acid and bichloride of mercury. 11365
Counter-Irritation in Whooping Cough.--By G.F. INGLOTT,
M.D.--Application of irritants to the skin for curing the
paroxysms of whooping cough. 11365
On the Health Value to Man of the So-called Divinely
Beneficent Gift, Tobacco.--By J.M.W. KITCHEN, M.D.--The
evils to man and to the soil.--A formidable series of
accusations well expressed. 11365
Water as a Therapeutical Agent.--By F.C. ROBINSON,
M.D.--An interesting resume of different applications of
water in therapeutics.--Suggestions of use for all
households. 11364
VIII. MILITARY ENGINEERING.--Gibraltar.--A history of this
important strategic position and of the different sieges
the fortress has undergone. 11352
Gibraltar and Neighborhood.--A consular report on the
statistics of the famous military station. 11352
The Defense of Gibraltar--Experimental Naval and Military
Operations.--Interesting series of operations recently
carried out under the shadow of the historic rock.--1
illustration. 11352
IX. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--Clark's Gyroscopic Torpedoes.--A
recent torpedo, in which all the possible parts are made
to rotate.--2 illustrations. 11353
The First Steamboat on the Seine.--The Marquis de
Jouffroy's steamer of 1816.--1 illustration. 11353
The Franz Josef I., New War Ship.--Details of the
dimensions of the new Austrian ship.--Her armament,
speed, armor, etc. 11353
X. PHOTOGRAPHY.--Orthochromatic Photography.--By OSCAR O.
LITZKOW.--The last developments in this interesting
branch of photographic art, with formulae. 11360
Platinotype Printing.--A description of the most advanced
method of conducting the platinum print process. 11360
XI. PHYSICS.--Iridescent Crystals.--By LORD RAYLEIGH.--An
abstract of a lecture by the distinguished physicist,
detailing some interesting experiments applicable to the
colored reflection observed in crystals of chloride of
potash.--1 illustration. 11366
Transmission of Pressure in Fluids.--By ALBERT B.
PORTER.--An apparatus for illustrating the laws of
transmission of pressure in fluids, suitable for lecture
purposes.--1 illustration. 11362
XII. TECHNOLOGY.--Notes on Dyewood Extracts and Similar
Preparations.--By LOUIS SIEBOLD.--The recent development
in the preparation of dyewood extracts, with notes of
their adulterations. 11359
* * * * *
THE DEFENSE OF GIBRALTAR: EXPERIMENTAL NAVAL AND MILITARY
OPERATIONS.
[Illustration: THE DEFENSE OF GIBRALTAR--EXPERIMENTAL NAVAL AND
MILITARY OPERATIONS.]
A novel and interesting series of operations was carried out at
Gibraltar a few weeks ago, with a view to test the promptitude with
which the garrison of the famous Rock could turn out to resist a
sudden attack by a powerful iron-clad fleet. The supposed enemy was
represented by the Channel Squadron, under the command of Vice-Admiral
Baird, and consisting of H.M.S. Northumberland (flag ship), the
Agincourt, Monarch, Iron Duke, and Curlew. The "general idea" of the
operations was that a hostile fleet was known to be cruising in the
vicinity, and that an attack on the Rock might be made. The squadron
left Gibraltar and proceeded to the westward, returning to the
eastward through the Straits under cover of the night.
The Governor of Gibraltar, General the Hon. Sir Arthur Hardinge,
issued orders for the whole garrison to stand to their arms at dawn,
and subsequent days, until the attack should be made; but by his
express command no batteries were to be manned, or any troops moved
from their alarm posts, until the signal was given that an attack was
imminent. The alarm signal ordered was that of three guns fired in
rapid succession from the Upper Signal Station on the summit of the
Rock, to be followed, after a short pause, by two more shots. It was a
matter of complete uncertainty as to the direction from which the
attack would be made.
Every detail was carefully carried out, as if the impending attack was
a real affair. The telegraphic communication between the various parts
of the Rock was supplemented by signalers; arrangements were made for
the ready supply of reserve ammunition for all arms; and the medical
authorities established dressing stations, at numerous points of the
Rock, to render "first aid" to those who might chance to be numbered
among the "wounded." Day broke with a "Levanter," and the heavy clouds
hanging about rendered any distant view a matter of difficulty.
However, before it had become actually daylight the alarm guns gave
notice that the enemy had been sighted. The troops turned out with
great promptitude, being all at their assigned stations in less than a
quarter of an hour, and were shortly ordered to various points
commanding the east side of the Rock. As day broke, the hostile ships
were to be discerned steaming in single line ahead, from the northeast,
along the back of the Rock, and about 5,000 yards from it. The flag
ship, followed by the Monarch and the Agincourt, proceeded toward
Europa Point, while the Iron Duke and the Curlew stood close in to the
eastern beach, so as to engage the northern defenses of the fortress.
The first shot was fired by the flag ship, shortly before six o'clock
in the morning, at the southern defenses. It was replied to, in less
than three minutes, by the Europa batteries, and very shortly the
engagement became general. The plan of tactics employed by the
squadron was that of steaming rapidly up and down, and concentrating
their fire in turn on the various shore batteries. Later on, the whole
squadron assembled off Europa Point, and fired broadsides by
electricity as they steamed past at speed. The spectacle at this
moment was a very fine one, the roar of the heavy guns of the ships
being supplemented by the sharp, rapid report of the quick-firing
guns, which were supposed to be sending a storm of small shell among
the defenders of the Rock. The incessant rattle of the ships' machine
guns was also heard in the intervals between the thundering broadsides
of heavy ordnance. All the ships were, of course, cleared for action,
with topmasts and yards sent down, and it is needless to say they
looked exceedingly workmanlike and formidable.
The various batteries on the Rock replied with great vivacity, and the
general effect produced as gun after gun was brought to bear on the
ships, and the white smoke wreathed itself round the many crags and
precipices of the grim old Rock, was a sight long to be remembered.
The exercise afforded to both branches of the service was undoubtedly
most instructive. Our illustration is a sketch by Captain Willoughby
Verner from one of the batteries above the Europa Flats, at which
point the governor took up his position to watch the operations.
--_Illustrated London News._
* * * * *
GIBRALTAR AND NEIGHBORHOOD.
REPORT BY CONSUL SPRAGUE.
Notwithstanding that the political situation of Europe seems to be
less threatening among its leading powers, still the uncertainty
prevalent among those who are generally considered the arbiters of
public affairs has had its influence in contracting the limits of
speculative adventure, thereby circumscribing the general course of
trade throughout the Mediterranean.
In renewing to the department my reports upon the navigation and
general commerce of Gibraltar, I beg to state that there has been a
tolerably fair current business prevailing in American produce during
the past quarter, consisting chiefly in flour, tobacco, and refined
petroleum in cases, imported direct from New York.
The steady demand for American petroleum confirms the fact that
Russian petroleum so far receives but little attention in this market
from the regular traders and consumers, so long as supplies from the
United States can be regularly imported at reasonable prices. It,
however, remains an open question, in the event of lower prices ruling
in the Russian petroleum regions, whether American supplies may not
later on experience some greater competitive foreign interference.
According to the statistical data, steam vessels of all nationalities
have continued to make Gibraltar their port of call, not only for
orders, but also for replenishing their stock of fuel and provisions,
and in larger numbers than ever before, the number in 1888 having
reached 5,712 steam vessels, measuring in all 5,969,563 tons, while in
1887 the number was only 5,187 steam vessels, with an aggregate
tonnage of 5,372,962. This increase cannot but result in considerable
benefit to the coal and maritime traffic, which now forms the most
important portion of the general commerce of Gibraltar, in spite of
the keen competition it experiences from other British and foreign
coaling ports.
Freights have also advanced in favor of steamship interests, which,
with higher prices in England for coal, have also caused an advance in
the price of coal at this port, to the benefit of the coal merchants
and others interested in this important trade. At present the ruling
price for steam coal is 24s. per ton, deliverable from alongside of
coal hulks moored in the bay. As near as I have been able to
ascertain, the quantity of coal sold in this market during the past
year for supplying merchant steam vessels has amounted to about
508,000 tons, which is an increase of about 20,000 tons over the year
1887.
Notwithstanding that plans have already been submitted to the British
government for the construction of a dry dock in Gibraltar, the matter
remains somewhat in suspense, since it meets with some opposition on
the part of the British government, which, in face of the European
fever for general arming, seems more inclined to utilize in another
form the expense which such a work would entail upon the imperial
government, by replacing the obsolete ordnance recently removed from
this fortress and substituting new defenses and guns of the most
approved patterns, a matter which has evidently been receiving, for
some time past, the special attention of the British military
authorities, not doubting that the recent visit to the fortress of the
Duke of Cambridge has had some connection with it. In fact, it is
reported that the duke has already expressed the opinion that this
fortress requires a larger number of artillerymen than are quartered
here at present to man its batteries, and it would seem that this
recommendation is likely to be carried out.
It is yet somewhat too early to venture an opinion regarding the
growing crops of cereals in this Spanish neighborhood, but the
agricultural and manufacturing interests in Spain have suffered so
much in the past years that the general feeling in Spain continues to
tend toward establishing increased restrictions against foreign
competition in her home markets. There is every probability that the
provinces of Malaga and Granada may shortly be granted the privilege
of cultivating the tobacco plant under government supervision, as an
essay. If properly managed, it may form an important and lucrative
business for those interested in land and agricultural pursuits.
After many consecutive years of heavy outlays, difficulties, and
constant disappointments, a new English company has recently succeeded
in commencing the construction of a railway from the neighboring
Spanish town of Algeciras to join, via Ronda, the railway station of
Bobadilla, on the railroad line toward Malaga. It is presumed that
when this railroad will be in running order it will greatly benefit
this community, especially if the Spanish government should decide to
establish custom houses at Algeciras and the Spanish lines outside the
gates of this fortress, similar to those existing on the frontiers of
France and Portugal.
That some idea may be formed of the constant important daily
intercourse which exists between this fortress and Spain, I may state
that late police statistics show that 1,887,617 passes were issued to
visitors entering this fortress on daily permits during the year 1888,
1,608,004 entering by the land route and 279,613 by sea. I must,
however, observe that the larger portion of these visitors consists of
laborers, coal heavers, market people, and others engaged in general
traffic.
A new industry in cork has lately sprung up, in which leading Spanish
and native commercial firms in Gibraltar are directly interested to a
considerable extent. Extensive warehouses for the storing of cork wood
and machinery for the manufacture of bottle corks have recently been
established at the Spanish lines, about a mile distant from this
fortress, in Spanish territory, where large quantities of cork have
already been stored. The cork is obtained and collected from the
valuable trees, which are owned by the representatives of some of the
oldest nobility of Spain, who have sold the products of their
extensive woods to private individuals for periods reaching as far on
as ten years, for which concession large cash advances have already
been made. The woods commence at a distance of about twelve miles from
Gibraltar, and are of considerable extent.
The railway now in course of construction passes through these woods,
which may ere long offer quite picturesque scenery for travelers,
especially when the cork trees are bearing acorns, which form the
principal food for the fattening of large herds of swine during
certain seasons of the year, in this way, also, contributing to the
value of this tree, which, like the other kinds of oak trees, is of
long and tardy growth. The tree from which the cork is obtained is
somewhat abundant in the mountainous districts of Andalusia. It grows
to a height of about 30 feet, and resembles the _Quercus ilex_, or
evergreen oak, and attains to a great age. After arriving at a certain
state of maturity it periodically sheds its bark, but this bark is
found to be of better quality when artificially removed from the tree,
which may be effected without injury to the tree itself. After the
tree has attained twenty-five years it may be barked, and the
operation is afterward repeated once in every seven years. The quality
of the cork seems to improve with the increasing age of the tree,
which is said to live over one hundred and fifty years. The bark is
taken off during July and August.
Cork dust is also obtained from this cork wood, and is much used in
the packing of grapes, which fruit is largely shipped from the eastern
coast of Spain, especially from Almeria, during the vintage seasons,
for the American and British markets.--_Reports of U.S. Consuls._
* * * * *
GIBRALTAR.
The point or rock known as Gibraltar is a promontory two and one-half
miles long and from a quarter to three-quarters of a mile wide. It
rises abruptly from the sandy shore to a height at its highest point
of 1,408 ft. It is composed of gray limestone, honeycombed with caves
and subterranean passages, some of which contain most beautiful
stalactites in the form of massive pillars.
Gibraltar is emphatically a fortress, and in some respects its
fortifications are unique. On the eastern side the rock needs no
defense beyond its own precipitous cliffs, and in all other directions
it has been rendered practically impregnable. Besides a sea wall
extending at intervals round the western base of the rock, and
strengthened by curtains and bastions and three formidable forts,
there are batteries in all available positions from the sea wall up to
the summit, 1,350 feet above the sea, and a remarkable series of
galleries has been hewn out of the solid face of the rock toward the
north and northwest. These galleries have an aggregate length of
between two and three miles, and their breadth is sufficient to let a
carriage pass. Portholes are cut at intervals of twelve yards, so
contrived that the gunners are safe from the shot of any possible
assailants. At the end of one of the galleries hollowed out in a
prominent part of the cliff is St. George's Hall, 50 feet long by 85
feet wide, in which the governor was accustomed to give fetes.
Alterations, extensions, and improvements are continually taking place
in the defensive system, and new guns of the most formidable sort are
gradually displacing or supplementing the old fashioned ordnance.
The whole population of Gibraltar, whether civil or military, is
subjected to certain stringent rules. For even a day's sojourn the
alien must obtain a pass from the town major, and if he wish to remain
longer, a consul or householder must become security for his good
behavior. Licenses of residence are granted only for short
periods--ten, fifteen, or twenty days--but they can be renewed if
occasion require. Military officers may introduce a stranger for
thirty days. A special permit is necessary if the visitor wishes to
sketch.
Though the town of Gibraltar may be said to date from the fourteenth
century, it has preserved very little architectural evidence of its
antiquity. Rebuilt on an enlarged and improved plan after its almost
complete destruction during the great siege, it is still, on the
whole, a mean-looking town, with narrow streets and lanes and an
incongruous mixture of houses after the English and the Spanish types.
As a proprietor may at any moment be called upon to give up his house
and ground at the demand of the military authorities, he is naturally
deterred from spending his money on substantial or sumptuous
erections. The area of the town is about one hundred acres.
Gibraltar was known to the Greek and Roman geographers as Calpe or
Alybe, the two names being probably corruptions of the same local
(perhaps Phenician) word. The eminence on the African coast near
Ceuta, which bears the modern English name of Apes' Hill, was then
designated Abyla; and Calpe and Abyla, at least according to an
ancient and widely current interpretation, formed the renowned pillars
of Hercules (Herculis columnae), which for centuries were the limits of
enterprise to the seafaring peoples of the Mediterranean world.
The strategic importance of the rock appears to have been first
discovered by the Moors, who, when they crossed over from Africa in
the eighth century, selected it as the site of a fortress. From their
leader, Tarik Ibn Zeyad, it was called Gebel Tarik or Tarik's Hill;
and, though the name had a competitor in Gebel af Futah, or Hill of
the Entrance, it gradually gained acceptance, and still remains
sufficiently recognizable in the corrupted form of the present day.
The first siege of the rock was in 1309, when it was taken by Alonzo
Perez de Guzman for Ferdinand IV. of Spain, who, in order to attract
inhabitants to the spot, offered an asylum to swindlers, thieves, and
murderers, and promised to levy no taxes on the import or export of
goods. The attack of Ismail Ben Ferez, in 1315 (second siege), was
frustrated; but in 1333 Vasco Paez de Meira, having allowed the
fortifications and garrison to decay, was obliged to capitulate to
Mahomet IV. (third siege). Alphonso's attempts to recover possession
(fourth siege) were futile, though pertinacious and heroic, and he was
obliged to content himself with a tribute for the rock from Abdul
Melek of Granada; but after his successful attack on Algeciras in 1344
he was encouraged to try his fortune again at Gibraltar. In 1349 he
invested the rock, but the siege (fifth siege) was brought to an
untimely close by his death from the plague in February, 1350. The
next or sixth siege resulted simply in the transference of the coveted
position from the hands of the King of Morocco to those of Yussef III.
of Granada; and the seventh, undertaken by the Spanish Count of
Niebla, Enrico de Guzman, proved fatal to the besieger and his forces.
In 1462, however, success attended the efforts of Alphonso de Arcos
(eighth siege), and in August the rock passed once more under
Christian sway. The Duke of Medina Sidonia, a powerful grandee who had
assisted in its capture, was anxious to get possession of the
fortress, and though Henry IV. at first managed to maintain the claims
of the crown, the duke ultimately made good his ambition by force of
arms (ninth siege), and in 1469 the king was constrained to declare
his son and his heirs perpetual governors of Gibraltar. In 1479
Ferdinand and Isabella made the second duke Marquis of Gibraltar, and
in 1492 the third duke, Don Juan, was reluctantly allowed to retain
the fortress. At length, in 1501, Garcilaso de la Vega was ordered to
take possession of the place in the king's name, and it was formally
incorporated with the domains of the crown. After Ferdinand and
Isabella were both dead the duke, Don Juan, tried in 1506 to recover
possession, and added a tenth to the list of sieges. Thirty-four years
afterward the garrison had to defend itself against a much more
formidable attack (eleventh siege)--the pirates of Algiers having
determined to recover the rock for Mahomet and themselves. The
conflict was severe, but resulted in the repulse of the besiegers.
After this the Spaniards made great efforts to strengthen the place,
and they succeeded so well that throughout Europe Gibraltar was
regarded as impregnable.
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